Effects Of Intervention Components Research Articles

Fitbit-Based Interventions for Healthy Lifestyle Outcomes: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

BackgroundUnhealthy behaviors, such as physical inactivity, sedentary lifestyle, and unhealthful eating, remain highly prevalent, posing formidable challenges in efforts to improve cardiovascular health. While traditional interventions to promote healthy lifestyles are both costly and effective, wearable trackers, especially Fitbit devices, can provide a low-cost alternative that may effectively help large numbers of individuals become more physically fit and thereby maintain a good health status.ObjectiveThe objectives of this meta-analysis are (1) to assess the effectiveness of interventions that incorporate a Fitbit device for healthy lifestyle outcomes (eg, steps, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, and weight) and (2) to identify which additional intervention components or study characteristics are the most effective at improving healthy lifestyle outcomes.MethodsA systematic review was conducted, searching the following databases from 2007 to 2019: MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, and CENTRAL (Cochrane). Studies were included if (1) they were randomized controlled trials, (2) the intervention involved the use of a Fitbit device, and (3) the reported outcomes were related to healthy lifestyles. The main outcome measures were related to physical activity, sedentary behavior, and weight. All the studies were assessed for risk of bias using Cochrane criteria. A random-effects meta-analysis was conducted to estimate the treatment effect of interventions that included a Fitbit device compared with a control group. We also conducted subgroup analysis and fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) to further disentangle the effects of intervention components.ResultsOur final sample comprised 41 articles reporting the results of 37 studies. For Fitbit-based interventions, we found a statistically significant increase in daily step count (mean difference [MD] 950.54, 95% CI 475.89-1425.18; P<.001) and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MD 6.16, 95% CI 2.80-9.51; P<.001), a significant decrease in weight (MD −1.48, 95% CI −2.81 to −0.14; P=.03), and a nonsignificant decrease in objectively assessed and self-reported sedentary behavior (MD −10.62, 95% CI −35.50 to 14.27; P=.40 and standardized MD −0.11, 95% CI −0.48 to 0.26; P=.56, respectively). In general, the included studies were at low risk for bias, except for performance bias. Subgroup analysis and fsQCA demonstrated that, in addition to the effects of the Fitbit devices, setting activity goals was the most important intervention component.ConclusionsThe use of Fitbit devices in interventions has the potential to promote healthy lifestyles in terms of physical activity and weight. Fitbit devices may be useful to health professionals for patient monitoring and support.Trial RegistrationPROSPERO International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews CRD42019145450; https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42019145450

Addressing the Third Delay in Saving Mothers, Giving Life Districts in Uganda and Zambia: Ensuring Adequate and Appropriate Facility-Based Maternal and Perinatal Health Care.

Saving Mothers, Giving Life (SMGL) is a 5-year initiative implemented in participating districts in Uganda and Zambia that aimed to reduce deaths related to pregnancy and childbirth by targeting the 3 delays to receiving appropriate care: seeking, reaching, and receiving. Approaches to addressing the third delay included adequate health facility infrastructure, specifically sufficient equipment and medications; trained providers to provide quality evidence-based care; support for referrals to higher-level care; and effective maternal and perinatal death surveillance and response. SMGL used a mixed-methods approach to describe intervention strategies, outcomes, and health impacts. Programmatic and monitoring and evaluation data-health facility assessments, facility and community surveillance, and population-based mortality studies-were used to document the effectiveness of intervention components. During the SMGL initiative, the proportion of facilities providing emergency obstetric and newborn care (EmONC) increased from 10% to 25% in Uganda and from 6% to 12% in Zambia. Correspondingly, the delivery rate occurring in EmONC facilities increased from 28.2% to 41.0% in Uganda and from 26.0% to 29.1% in Zambia. Nearly all facilities had at least one trained provider on staff by the endline evaluation. Staffing increases allowed a higher proportion of health centers to provide care 24 hours a day/7 days a week by endline-from 74.6% to 82.9% in Uganda and from 64.8% to 95.5% in Zambia. During this period, referral communication improved from 93.3% to 99.0% in Uganda and from 44.6% to 100% in Zambia, and data systems to identify and analyze causes of maternal and perinatal deaths were established and strengthened. SMGL's approach was associated with improvements in facility infrastructure, equipment, medication, access to skilled staff, and referral mechanisms and led to declines in facility maternal and perinatal mortality rates. Further work is needed to sustain these gains and to eliminate preventable maternal and perinatal deaths.

Suicide interventions in primary care: A selective review of the evidence.

About half of people who die by suicide visit their primary care provider (PCP) within 1 month of doing so, compared with fewer than 1 in 5 contacting specialty mental health. Thus, primary care is an important setting for improving identification and treatment of suicide risk. This review identifies and summarizes evidence for the effectiveness of intervention components for suicide risk in primary care. We searched the PsycINFO database to identify relevant articles. We considered publications reporting the effectiveness of a packaged intervention for management of suicide risk in primary care or any other brief (i.e., single-session) intervention for suicide risk in the present review. Four major components to suicide interventions in primary care emerged: (a) educating practitioners, (b) screening for suicide risk and/or mood disturbance, (c) managing depression symptoms, and (d) assessing and managing suicide risk. Although practitioner education and screening for suicide risk are important, they are insufficient for effective suicide prevention programs. Collaborative treatment of depression by multidisciplinary teams can reduce rates of suicidal ideation in primary care patients. Recent evidence also indicates a single-session crisis response planning intervention may be effective at reducing suicidal ideation and attempts. Integration of behavioral health specialists trained in suicide risk assessment and management could be important for improving suicide prevention in primary care patients. This condensed review of the evidence serves as a resource for practitioners who are hoping to implement brief, effective interventions for suicide risk to better serve their patients. (PsycINFO Database Record

A smartphone app to reduce excessive alcohol consumption: Identifying the effectiveness of intervention components in a factorial randomised control trial

Our aim was to evaluate intervention components of an alcohol reduction app: Drink Less. Excessive drinkers (AUDIT> =8) were recruited to test enhanced versus minimal (reduced functionality) versions of five app modules in a 25 factorial trial. Modules were: Self-monitoring and Feedback, Action Planning, Identity Change, Normative Feedback, and Cognitive Bias Re-training. Outcome measures were: change in weekly alcohol consumption (primary); full AUDIT score, app usage, app usability (secondary). Main effects and two-way interactions were assessed by ANOVA using intention-to-treat. A total of 672 study participants were included. There were no significant main effects of the intervention modules on change in weekly alcohol consumption or AUDIT score. There were two-way interactions between enhanced Normative Feedback and Cognitive Bias Re-training on weekly alcohol consumption (F = 4.68, p = 0.03) and between enhanced Self-monitoring and Feedback and Action Planning on AUDIT score (F = 5.82, p = 0.02). Enhanced Self-monitoring and Feedback was used significantly more often and rated significantly more positively for helpfulness, satisfaction and recommendation to others than the minimal version. To conclude, in an evaluation of the Drink Less smartphone application, the combination of enhanced Normative Feedback and Cognitive Bias Re-training and enhanced Self-monitoring and Feedback and Action Planning yielded improvements in alcohol-related outcomes after 4-weeks.

A Multicomponent Schoolyard Intervention Targeting Children's Recess Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior: Effects After 1 Year.

The aim of the study was to test the 12-month effects of a multicomponent physical activity (PA) intervention at schoolyards on morning recess PA levels of sixth- and seventh-grade children in primary schools, using accelerometry and additional global positioning system data. A quasi-experimental study design was used with 20 paired intervention and control schools. Global positioning system confirmatory analyses were applied to validate attendance at schoolyards during recess. Accelerometer data from 376 children from 7 pairs of schools were included in the final analyses. Pooled intervention effectiveness was tested by multilevel linear regression analyses, whereas effectiveness of intervention components was tested by multivariate linear regression analyses. Children exposed to the multicomponent intervention increased their time spent in light PA (+5.9%) during recess. No pooled effects on moderate to vigorous PA were found. In-depth analyses of intervention components showed that physical schoolyard interventions particularly predicted a decrease in time spent in sedentary behavior during recess at follow-up. Intervention intensity and the school's commitment to the project strengthened this effect. The multicomponent schoolyard PA intervention was effective in making children spend a larger proportion of recess time in light PA, which was most likely the result of a shift from sedentary behavior to light PA.

Non-pharmacological self-management for people living with migraine or tension-type headache: a systematic review including analysis of intervention components

ObjectivesTo assess the effect of non-pharmacological self-management interventions against usual care, and to explore different components and delivery methods within those interventionsParticipantsPeople living with migraine and/or tension-type headacheInterventionsNon-pharmacological educational or...

Toward precision smoking cessation treatment I: Moderator results from a factorial experiment

BackgroundThe development of tobacco use treatments that are effective for all smokers is critical to improving clinical and public health. The Multiphase Optimization Strategy (MOST) uses highly efficient factorial experiments to evaluate multiple intervention components for possible inclusion in an optimized tobacco use treatment. Factorial experiments permit analyses of the influence of patient characteristics on main and interaction effects of multiple, relatively discrete, intervention components. This study examined whether person-factor and smoking characteristics moderated the main or interactive effects of intervention components on 26-week self-reported abstinence rates. MethodsThis fractional factorial experiment evaluated six smoking cessation intervention components among primary care patients (N=637): Prequit Nicotine Patch vs. None, Prequit Nicotine Gum vs. None, Preparation Counseling vs. None, Intensive Cessation In-Person Counseling vs. Minimal, Intensive Cessation Telephone Counseling vs. Minimal, and 16 vs. 8 Weeks of Combination Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT; nicotine patch+nicotine gum). ResultsBoth psychiatric history and smoking heaviness moderated intervention component effects. In comparison with participants with no self-reported history of a psychiatric disorder, those with a positive history showed better response to 16- vs. 8-weeks of combination NRT, but a poorer response to counseling interventions. Also, in contrast to light smokers, heavier smokers showed a poorer response to counseling interventions. ConclusionsHeavy smokers and those with psychiatric histories demonstrated a differential response to intervention components. This research illustrates the use of factorial designs to examine the interactions between person characteristics and relatively discrete intervention components. Future research is needed to replicate these findings.

A Multicomponent Schoolyard Intervention Targeting Children's Recess Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior: Effects After One Year.

Background Aim of the study was to test the 12-month effects of a multicomponent physical activity (PA) intervention at schoolyards on recess PA levels of 6th and 7th grade children in primary schools, combining Global Positioning System (GPS) and accelerometry data. Methods A quasi-experimental study design was used with 20 paired intervention and control schools. GPS confirmatory analyses were applied to validate attendance at schoolyards during recess. Data from 376 children from 7 pairs of schools were included in the final analyses. Pooled intervention effectiveness was tested by multilevel linear regression analyses, whereas effectiveness of intervention components was tested by multivariate linear regression analyses. Results Children exposed to the multicomponent intervention increased their time spent in light PA (+5.9%) during recess. No pooled effects on Moderate-to-Vigorous PA were found. In depth-analyses on intervention components showed that physical schoolyard interventions particularly predicted a decrease in time spent in sedentary behavior during recess at follow-up. Intervention intensity and school's commitment to the project strengthened this effect. Conclusions The multicomponent schoolyard PA intervention was effective in making children spend a larger proportion of recess time in light PA, which was most likely the result of a shift from sedentary behavior to light PA.

Texting to Increase Adolescent Physical Activity: Feasibility Assessment.

Feasibility trials assess whether a behavior change program warrants a definite trial evaluation. This paper reports the feasibility of an intervention consisting of Self Determination Theory-informed text messages, pedometers, and goal prompts to increase adolescent physical activity. A 4-group randomized design with baseline and immediate post-study assessments was used. Groups (pedometer; pedometer + goal prompt; pedometer + goal prompt + theory-informed texts; no-treatment control) were systematically varied to assess the additive effect of intervention components on objectively measured physical activity (ie, ActiGraph). The primary outcome of the 12-week intervention was program feasibility. Changes in average daily step counts and minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity also were examined. Post-intervention research with a subset of participants examined program reactions. Participants (N = 160) were evenly split by sex, mostly 14-15 years old, and of diverse race/ethnicity. Feasibility criteria were met. The attrition rate was less than 2%. Modest increases in average daily step counts and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity were observed in all groups except the control group. Participants reported positive reactions to the intervention. An intervention consisting of pedometers, theory-informed texts, and goal prompts, is a feasible and acceptable method for promoting physical activity to adolescents.

Effects of group psychotherapy on anger management following acquired brain injury

Objective: To assess the effects of an anger management group programme for patients with acquired brain injury (ABI) on self-reported anger and to identify specific effects of intervention components at different time-points.Participants: Twenty-six participants with ABI were randomized, 24 started the programme and 19 completed it.Design: A paired-randomization was held following the first baseline (T0) and a second baseline (T1) was held several weeks later. One group (n = 8) started with an 8-week anger management programme followed by a 4-week intervention focusing on the psychosocial impact of brain injury. This order was reversed in the other group (n = 11). Assessment was carried-out every 4 weeks (T1–T4) during the 12-week intervention period.Main outcome measures: The Aggression Questionnaire-12, The State-Trait Anger and Expression Inventory-2 and The Multidimensional Anger Reaction Scale.Results: Anger levels did not significantly change between T0 and T1, but decreased significantly at T4. Adaptive anger coping strategies also increased following intervention. Inwardly expressed anger decreased following the anger management programme compared to the psychosocial adjustment programme.Conclusions: Group psychotherapy may improve parameters of anger management in patients with ABI. However, specific effects of different components of the anger management programme merit further investigation.

Comparative effectiveness of intervention components for producing long-term abstinence from smoking: a factorial screening experiment.

To identify promising intervention components that help smokers attain and maintain abstinence during a quit attempt. A 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 randomized factorial experiment. Eleven primary care clinics in Wisconsin, USA. A total of 544 smokers (59% women, 86% white) recruited during primary care visits and motivated to quit. Five intervention components designed to help smokers attain and maintain abstinence: (1) extended medication (26 versus 8 weeks of nicotine patch + nicotine gum); (2) maintenance (phone) counseling versus none; (3) medication adherence counseling versus none; (4) automated (medication) adherence calls versus none; and (5) electronic medication monitoring with feedback and counseling versus electronic medication monitoring alone. The primary outcome was 7-day self-reported point-prevalence abstinence 1 year after the target quit day. Only extended medication produced a main effect. Twenty-six versus 8 weeks of medication improved point-prevalence abstinence rates (43 versus 34% at 6 months; 34 versus 27% at 1 year; P = 0.01 for both). There were four interaction effects at 1 year, showing that an intervention component's effectiveness depended upon the components with which it was combined. Twenty-six weeks of nicotine patch + nicotine gum (versus 8 weeks) and maintenance counseling provided by phone are promising intervention components for the cessation and maintenance phases of smoking treatment.

Smartphone applications to support weight loss: current perspectives.

Lower cost alternatives are needed for the traditional in-person behavioral weight loss programs to overcome challenges of lowering the worldwide prevalence of overweight and obesity. Smartphones have become ubiquitous and provide a unique platform to aid in the delivery of a behavioral weight loss program. The technological capabilities of a smartphone may address certain limitations of a traditional weight loss program, while also reducing the cost and burden on participants, interventionists, and health care providers. Awareness of the advantages smartphones offer for weight loss has led to the rapid development and proliferation of weight loss applications (apps). The built-in features and the mechanisms by which they work vary across apps. Although there are an extraordinary number of a weight loss apps available, most lack the same magnitude of evidence-based behavior change strategies typically used in traditional programs. As features develop and new capabilities are identified, we propose a conceptual model as a framework to guide the inclusion of features that can facilitate behavior change and lead to reductions in weight. Whereas the conventional wisdom about behavior change asserts that more is better (with respect to the number of behavior change techniques involved), this model suggests that less may be more because extra techniques may add burden and adversely impact engagement. Current evidence is promising and continues to emerge on the potential of smartphone use within weight loss programs; yet research is unable to keep up with the rapidly improving smartphone technology. Future studies are needed to refine the conceptual model’s utility in the use of technology for weight loss, determine the effectiveness of intervention components utilizing smartphone technology, and identify novel and faster ways to evaluate the ever-changing technology.

Effect of interventions to improve adolescents’ nutrition knowledge in China

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to improve adolescents’ nutrition knowledge and to examine the effect of interventions component to improve adolescents’ nutrition knowledge. Design/methodology/approach – The study design was multi-factorial with repeated measures, at two points in time, of dependent samples from three schools, which were randomly selected from 15 middle schools in Miyun County, Beijing, and then randomly assigned to control school or intervention school. The instrument for baseline survey was a 14-item and for follow-up survey was a 26-item, self-administered, structured questionnaire, designed in Chinese. Findings – Students’ nutrition knowledge improved significantly in intervention schools after intervention compared with controls. The extent to which students felt that peer support activities were helpful and that what they learned in class about nutrition was helpful, was related to their resultant level of nutrition knowledge. Originality/value – To the authors’ knowledge there have been no previous studies which explore the effect of specific intervention components on levels of nutrition knowledge among adolescents.

Mental health and aging initiative: intervention component effects

The objective of this investigation is to evaluate the Mental Healthiness and Aging Initiative (MHAI) intervention. The MHAI was created to promote awareness and knowledge about mental health/substance (MH/SA) use and aging issues in rural Kentucky, USA, due to limitations in formal and informal mental health care and treatment resources as a result of multilevel barriers in rural regions and effects on health, wellbeing and quality of life. This investigation took place between 2010 and 2011 in two rural counties in Kentucky. Participants from two counties were recruited through an email solicitation sent to Kentucky cooperative extension agents (university-affiliated community liaisons). Individuals participated in a two-hour intervention session covering facts and information, application exercises, and community tools for addressing late-life mental health and substance abuse. Effectiveness was evaluated by examining changes in attitudes and knowledge about MH/SA and aging from pre-test to post-test and again 3 months and 6 months later. The evaluation survey examined mental health and substance abuse awareness (six questions) and knowledge (13 questions) and was previously piloted and designed for the current study ensuring face validity. Seven individual linear mixed models were analyzed using each of the six awareness questions and an additional model using an aggregate score across the knowledge questions representing the total percent correct for knowledge questions. The participating sample (n=55) was 65.35 years of age on average, with the majority being female (85%), white (100%), married (69%), living with a spouse/partner only (68%), high school educated (57%) and having a total household income averaging US$44,199. The findings indicated sustained improvement in awareness and knowledge about MH/SA and aging. Results also indicated that there is a need to improve maintenance of knowledge regarding older adult alcohol consumption risk, clinical provider communication about mental health, identifying/recognizing mental health problems, and older adult retention of their mental abilities based on long-term retention rates. These indicators had below 90% correctness at 6 months, despite having 90%+ accuracy at post-assessment, immediately after the intervention administration. This study demonstrates that community interventions for MH/SA awareness and knowledge are effective within majority rural regions. As currently designed, implementing the MHAI intervention program is feasible. Evidence from the current study indicates that community residents (including rural individuals) can be recruited to participate in a program about MH/SA and aging, and as an outcome have increased awareness and knowledge about MH/SA and aging. Future research will need to explore how to utilize MHAI-type intervention programs to a point where the mental health of rural adults can be improved. Specifically, further investigation is needed to examine whether community mental health awareness interventions, such as the MHAI intervention program, can lead to earlier detection of MH/SA issues among older adults and increase treatment rates. If so, community mental health workers and facilities can expect such interventions to increase local residents' awareness of their services and likelihood of utilizing mental health services. Future research needs to enhance generalizability and ensure that improved knowledge and awareness translates into improved mental health in rural regions.

Intervention Taxonomy (ITAX): Describing Essential Features of Interventions

To identify key features of interventions that need to be considered in the design, execution, and reporting of interventions. Based on prior work on decomposing psychosocial and clinical interventions, current guidelines for describing interventions, and a review of a broad range of intervention studies, we developed a comprehensive intervention taxonomy. Specific recommendations, rationales, and definitions of intervention delivery and content characteristics including mode, materials, location, schedule, scripting, and sensitivity to participant characteristics, interventionist characteristics, adaptability, implementation, content strategies, and mechanisms of action are provided. Applying this taxonomy will advance intervention science by (a) improving intervention designs, (b) enhancing replication and follow-up of intervention studies, (c) facilitating systematic exploration of the efficacy and effectiveness of intervention components through cross-study analysis, and (d) informing decisions about the feasibility of implementation in broader community settings.

Comparison of a phased experimental approach and a single randomized clinical trial for developing multicomponent behavioral interventions

Many interventions in today's health sciences are multicomponent, and often one or more of the components are behavioral. Two approaches to building behavioral interventions empirically can be identified. The more typically used approach, labeled here the classical approach, consists of constructing a likely best intervention a priori, and then evaluating the intervention in a standard randomized controlled trial (RCT). By contrast, the emergent phased experimental approach involves programmatic phases of empirical research and discovery aimed at identifying individual intervention component effects and the best combination of components and levels. The purpose of this article is to provide a head-to-head comparison between the classical and phased experimental approaches and thereby highlight the relative advantages and disadvantages of these approaches when they are used to select program components and levels so as to arrive at the most potent intervention. A computer simulation was performed in which the classical and phased experimental approaches to intervention development were applied to the same randomly generated data. The phased experimental approach resulted in better mean intervention outcomes when the intervention effect size was medium or large, whereas the classical approach resulted in better mean intervention outcomes when the effect size was small. The phased experimental approach led to identification of the correct set of intervention components and levels at a higher rate than the classical approach across all conditions. Some potentially important factors were not varied in the simulation, for example the underlying structural model and the number of intervention components. The phased experimental approach merits serious consideration, because it has the potential to enable intervention scientists to develop more efficacious behavioral interventions.

Does parenting affect children's eating and weight status?

BackgroundWorldwide, the prevalence of obesity among children has increased dramatically. Although the etiology of childhood obesity is multifactorial, to date, most preventive interventions have focused on school-aged children in school settings and have met with limited success. In this review, we focus on another set of influences that impact the development of children's eating and weight status: parenting and feeding styles and practices. Our review has two aims: (1) to assess the extent to which current evidence supports the hypothesis that parenting, via its effects on children's eating, is causally implicated in childhood obesity; and (2) to identify a set of promising strategies that target aspects of parenting, which can be further evaluated as possible components in childhood obesity prevention.MethodsA literature review was conducted between October 2006 and January 2007. Studies published before January 2007 that assessed the association between some combination of parenting, child eating and child weight variables were included.ResultsA total of 66 articles met the inclusion criteria. The preponderance of these studies focused on the association between parenting and child eating. Although there was substantial experimental evidence for the influence of parenting practices, such as pressure, restriction, modeling and availability, on child eating, the majority of the evidence for the association between parenting and child weight, or the mediation of this association by child eating, was cross-sectional.ConclusionTo date, there is substantial causal evidence that parenting affects child eating and there is much correlational evidence that child eating and weight influence parenting. There are few studies, however, that have used appropriate meditational designs to provide causal evidence for the indirect effect of parenting on weight status via effects on child eating. A new approach is suggested for evaluating the effectiveness of intervention components and creating optimized intervention programs using a multiphase research design. Adoption of approaches such as the Multiphase Optimization Strategy (MOST) is necessary to provide the mechanistic evidence-base needed for the design and implementation of effective childhood obesity prevention programs.

Interventions that increase use of adult immunization and cancer screening services: a meta-analysis.

The relative effectiveness of the diverse approaches used to promote preventive care activities, such as cancer screening and adult immunization, is unknown. Despite many high-quality published studies, practices and policymakers attempting to improve preventive care have little definitive information on which to base decisions. Thus, we quantitatively assessed the relative effectiveness of previously studied approaches for improving adherence to adult immunization and cancer screening guidelines. MEDLINE, the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organization of Care Review Group register, previous systematic reviews, and the Medicare Health Care Quality Improvement Project database. Controlled clinical trials that assessed interventions to increase use of immunizations for influenza and pneumococcal pneumonia and screening for colon, breast, and cervical cancer in adults. Two reviewers independently extracted data on characteristics and outcomes from unmasked articles. Intervention components to increase use of services were classified as reminder, feedback, education, financial incentive, legislative action, organizational change, or mass media campaign. Of 552 abstracts and articles, 108 met the inclusion criteria. To assess the effect of intervention components, meta-regression models were developed for immunizations and each cancer screening service by using 81 studies with a usual care or control group. The most potent intervention types involved organizational change (the adjusted odds ratios for increased use of services from organizational change ranged from 2.47 to 17.6). Organizational change interventions included the use of separate clinics devoted to prevention, use of a planned care visit for prevention, or designation of nonphysician staff to do specific prevention activities. The next most effective intervention components were patient financial incentives (adjusted odds ratios, 1.82 to 3.42) and patient reminders (adjusted odds ratios, 1.74 to 2.75); the adjusted odds ratios ranged from 1.29 to 1.53 for patient education and from 1.10 to 1.76 for feedback. Rates of adult immunization and cancer screening are most likely to improve when a health care organization supports performance of these activities through organizational changes in staffing and clinical procedures. Involving patients in self-management through patient financial incentives and reminders is also likely to positively affect performance.

BOOK REVIEWS: The Basal Ganglia III. Advances in Behavioral Biology Series Vol. 39.

<h3>Introduction</h3> Little is known about how early (eg, commencing antenatally or in the first 12 months after birth) obesity prevention interventions seek to change behaviour and which components are or are not effective. This study aims to (1) characterise early obesity prevention interventions in terms of target behaviours, delivery features and behaviour change techniques (BCTs), (2) explore similarities and differences in BCTs used to target behaviours and (3) explore effectiveness of intervention components in preventing childhood obesity. <h3>Methods and analysis</h3> Annual comprehensive systematic searches will be performed in Epub Ahead of Print/MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane (CENTRAL), CINAHL, PsycINFO, as well as clinical trial registries. Eligible randomised controlled trials of behavioural interventions to prevent childhood obesity commencing antenatally or in the first year after birth will be invited to join the Transforming Obesity in CHILDren Collaboration. Standard ontologies will be used to code target behaviours, delivery features and BCTs in both published and unpublished intervention materials provided by trialists. Narrative syntheses will be performed to summarise intervention components and compare applied BCTs by types of target behaviours. Exploratory analyses will be undertaken to assess effectiveness of intervention components. <h3>Ethics and dissemination</h3> The study has been approved by The University of Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee (project no. 2020/273) and Flinders University Social and Behavioural Research Ethics Committee (project no. HREC CIA2133-1). The study’s findings will be disseminated through peer-reviewed publications, conference presentations and targeted communication with key stakeholders. <h3>PROSPERO registration number</h3> CRD42020177408.

Aids Education for Drug Users: Existing Research and New Directions

This article reviews research on AIDS education targeted to injection drug users in the United States. Findings provide a context for discussing substantive and methodological issues to be addressed in “second generation” research. Substantive issues include: situational and contextual factors affecting risk, patterns of relapse to high-risk behavior and relapse prevention strategies, the importance of isolating the effects of intervention components, outcomes of HIV antibody testing/counseling, and social policy alternatives for AIDS prevention. Methodological issues include: the role of experimental research, the value of combining ethnographic and survey methods, methods appropriate for research on subjective aspects of risk, and alternatives to risk measures based on self reports.