Effective Stress Method Research Articles

Closure to “Pile Setup in Cohesive Soil. I: Experimental Investigation” by Kam W. Ng, Matthew Roling, Sherif S. AbdelSalam, Muhannad T. Suleiman, and Sri Sritharan

Closure to “Pile Setup in Cohesive Soil. I: Experimental Investigation” by Kam W. Ng, Matthew Roling, Sherif S. AbdelSalam, Muhannad T. Suleiman, and Sri Sritharan

Coupled pile-soil interaction analysis in undrained condition

The effective stress method is developed to predict the axial capacity of piles in clay. The effective stress state changes due to the resulting pore pressure change and therefore, the strength and stiffness of the soil will change. In this work, the finite element method is utilized as a tool for the analysis of pile-soil systems in undrained condition. The computer program CRISP was developed to suit the problem requirements. CRISP uses the finite element technique and allows predictions to be made of ground deformation using critical state theories. Eight-node isoparametric element was added to the program in addition to the slip element. A pile loading problem was solved in which the pile-soil system is analyzed in undrained condition. The pile is modelled as elastic-plastic material, while the soil is assumed to follow the modified Cam clay model. During undrained loading condition, the settlement values increase by 22% when slip elements are used. The surface settlement increases by about three times when the load is doubled and the surface settlement at all points increases when using slip elements due to the mode of motion which allows smooth movement of the adjacent soil with respect to the pile. The vertical displacement increases as the distance decreases from the pile and negligible values are obtained beyond 10D (where D is the pile diameter) from the center of the pile and these values are slightly increased when slip elements are used. The vertical effective stress along a section at a distance D from the pile center is approximately the same for all load increments and lower values of effective vertical stress can be obtained when slip elements are used.

Fatigue assessment of high frequency mechanical impact (HFMI)-improved fillet welds by local approaches

Local fatigue assessment methods like the structural hot spot stress and effective notch stress methods as defined by the International Institute of Welding are widely used by design engineers and researchers to assess the fatigue strength of welded components. This paper provides a comprehensive evaluation of published data for welded joints which had been improved using high frequency mechanical impact (HFMI) treatment. All of the published data for HFMI-treated welds are presented in terms of nominal stress. The goal of the current paper is to establish local fatigue assessment procedures for improved fillet welds. In total, 160 published experimental results for longitudinal and cruciform welds subjected to R=0.1 axial loading are evaluated. Local stress quantities for each joint were assessed based on the finite element analyses and reported nominal stress values. A correction procedure for yield strength that was previously verified for nominal stress-based fatigue assessment is also applied to the local stress methods studied in this paper. For both the structural hot spot stress and effective notch stress methods, sets of characteristic fatigue strength curves as functions of yield strength are proposed and verified. The structural hot spot stress method includes one set of fatigue strength curves for load-carrying welds and a second set for non-load carrying welds. The effective notch stress method includes a single set of curves for all welds. All of the design curves proposed in this study are conservative with respect to available fatigue test data.

A comparative study of different fatigue failure assessments of welded bridge details

Five different welded joints frequently used in steel bridges have been selected to investigate the accuracy and applicability of three fatigue assessment methods. The first method, also categorised as the global method, is the nominal stress method, while the more advanced methods are the hot spot and the effective notch stress methods. Solid element based finite element models for welded bridge details were created by following the modelling requirements of each fatigue assessment method. A statistical evaluation based on the results of the finite element analyses and the fatigue test data collected from the literature was performed to determine the mean and characteristic fatigue strength. In addition, the standard deviation for each data series was also determined to conclude how well each method describes the fatigue strength of each welded detail. A method with a lower standard deviation is regarded as more accurate. Moreover, the evaluated results from each method were compared with the recommended fatigue strength values in the Eurocode 3 (EN 1993-1-9:2005) and IIW codes. In the light of the test results in this study, it appears that the codes are in reasonable agreement with the test data, even though a few examples of the opposite occurred. The conclusion based on the revised results in this article indicates that the nominal stress method yields satisfactory results, despite its simplicity. When considering the effort involved in creating FE models for numerical analysis, it seems clear that the choice of the nominal method is fairly acceptable.

Energy approach to unsaturated cyclic strength of sand

The mechanical response to cyclic loading of saturated cohesionless soils is usually investigated by means of effective stress method considering pore water pressure changes that lead to reduced strength and stiffness. On the other hand, the behavior of partially saturated sands is different from the behavior of saturated sand deposits. The development of negative pore water pressures in particular makes it difficult to estimate the behavior of partially saturated sands. The response of partially saturated sands, however, can be examined in a physically understandable manner by investigating their energy characteristics independently of pore pressure behavior. To establish a general framework for understanding the behavior of partially saturated sand, a total of 52 resonant column and dynamic torsional shear tests were conducted under undrained conditions. The effects of factors such as the amplitude of shear strain, relative density, saturation ratio and confining pressure on the dynamic characteristics of the sand and on energy dissipation were studied. The use of the energy concept in the evaluation of partially saturated soils is shown to be a promising method for the evaluation of the cyclic behavior of partially saturated sands.

Stress Analyses and Parametric Study on Full-Scale Fatigue Tests of Rib-to-Deck Welded Joints in Steel Orthotropic Decks

Fatigue tests of full-scale orthotropic steel decks were recently conducted to evaluate the fatigue performance of rib-to-deck partial-joint-penetration (PJP) groove welded joints. The test results indicated that rib-to-deck joints are more prone to fatigue cracks in the deck plate than in the rib wall. A shallower weld penetration (for example, an 80% PJP) also appeared to have a slightly higher fatigue resistance than a deeper one (for example, a 100% weld penetration). These PJP welds were also more vulnerable to cracking initiated from the weld toe than from the weld root. Finite-element analyses of the test specimens, using the effective notch stress method, were performed to supplement the laboratory testing and provide additional information on the behavior of these welded joints. The analysis results showed a good correlation with the observed crack patterns. A parametric study also showed that the fatigue resistance of the PJP joint can be significantly influenced by the transverse loading location, deck plate thickness, and the weld penetration ratio. Increasing the deck plate thickness was effective in reducing the stresses, while the rib wall thickness had a little effect. A shallower weld penetration at the PJP joint appeared to have a positive effect in enhancing the fatigue resistance.

Effective notch stress and critical distance method to estimate the fatigue life of T and overlap friction stir welded joints

The interface notch is a general characteristic of friction stir welded joints and appears in many types of the welds. Indeed interface notch most likely is a location that fatigue failure can occur there. This paper is concerned with the fatigue of friction stir welded joints. In the present paper fatigue of T and over lap joints were modelled base on critical distance method. Two material properties ΔKth, the fatigue threshold stress intensity factor and Δσ0, the fatigue limit were used in order for estimating the fatigue life at interface location. This is shown that assuming homogeneous material throughout the weld and the base material in FE analysis still can provide a reasonable fatigue prediction for friction stir joints when using critical distance method. This suggests the same procedure can be used for complex component when failure appears in the interface notch. In order to verify it the critical distance prediction method was also used for actual component where the failure occurred in the weld. The predicted fatigue limit deviated only 15% from the experimental result.

Effective Notch Stress Method for Fatigue Evaluation of Welded Joints in a Steel Bridge Deck

Effective notch stress, as an approach to evaluate the local stress at a notch (weld toe or root), is defined as the total stress assuming linear-elastic material behavior. This method can be effectively used to evaluate the fatigue performance of welded joints. In this study, finite element analysis results using the effective notch stress method were correlated with fatigue test results of rib-to-deck welded joints in a steel orthotropic bridge deck. Effective notch stress approach provided a good correlation with the crack pattern observed in the full-scale fatigue test. A higher effective notch stress at the critical weld toe than at the weld root was consistent with the dominant crack pattern observed at the weld toe during testing. The effective notch stress at the toe on the deck plate was about 80% higher than that on the rib; no cracks at the weld toe on the rib in the testing were observed. Maximum effective notch stress at the weld root occurred on the upper side of the root notch, which indicates that cracks are more likely to propagate into the deck plate, not into the weld metal. This is also consistent with the observed crack pattern in which the crack from the root propagated upward into the deck plate. No such crack pattern, propagating into the weld metal, was observed in the testing.

Influence of fabrication stresses on fatigue life of friction stir welded aluminium profiles

Influence of clamping and welding procedure on fatigue life of a friction stir (FS) welded aluminium profile has been analysed. Two series of aluminium profiles (series A and B) have been fatigue tested. The different clamping conditions in series A and B gave rise to different failure positions that could not be explained neither by the effective notch stress method, nor by the critical distance methods. The clamping in series A introduced plastic deformation at the weld notch that gave rise to tensile residual stresses. The failure position could be explained from the value of the stress intensity factor provided that the residual stresses were considered.

Method of effective stress for fatigue: Part II – Applications to V-notches and seam welds

As shown in Part I of this paper, an effective stress method is specified by selecting a corresponding kernel G ( x , x ¯ ) defining the functional F . Among the numerous possibilities available only the stress averaging method by Neuber, which is broadly applied to the fatigue evaluation of seam welds, will be of the main concern of the present part. Based on the Neuber method, analytical expressions for the notch sensitivity coefficient and the effective stress are derived for V-notches where the approximate solutions both by Neuber and by Lazzarin et al. for the elastic stress field near the tip of a V-notch are used. Detailed comparisons with some empirical formulas like those of Peterson, Siebel and Stieler and still more are carried out. It reveals the necessity and the importance of the introduction of a consistency condition in case of small notch radii which has to be met by the notch sensitivity coefficient or the notch sensitivity in order to get physical meaningful effective stress also for sharp notches. The comparisons with the methods of the fictitious notch radius and the averaged strain energy, the first widely used in its worst case form by Radaj and the second conceived for sharp V-notches, both of practical relevance for the application to seam welds, are performed at length. Finally the analytical notch sensitivity coefficient is applied to steel and aluminium seam welds with failure both in toes, roots and ends of the welds by assuming different notch radii. For aluminium welds, the micro-structure length ρ ∗ is determined using the mathematical identification for the first time and the corresponding effective stress S–N curve is derived as well. The identified micro-structure length ρ ∗ = 0.21 mm for aluminium welds is two-thirds of that for steel welds ρ ∗ = 0.31 mm which is also identified in this paper and thus smaller than the popularly used ρ ∗ = 0.4 mm.

Method of effective stress for fatigue: Part I – A general theory

It is well known that the elastic notch stress alone is insufficient for the estimation of fatigue life of structures. Instead suitably defined effective stress has to be introduced in order to establish the proper relationship between the (local) stress and material (fatigue-)strength. This circumstance is widely ascribed to the effect of stress gradient or more generally of non-uniformity of the stress. Numerous effective stress definitions are available. At first glance, they seem independent and differently motivated. To unify the existing methods and to get deeper insight into the methods of effective stress, a general theory is developed on the basis of the functional analysis in the current part of this paper. The crux is to conceive of the effective stress as the result of a mapping of the elastic stress field by a functional. By assuming the underlying stress space to be Hilbertian and endowing the functional with some simple properties (linearity and continuity), a general integral form involving the elastic stress and an integral kernel is obtained for the effective stress using the Riesz representation theorem. The important physical property of regularity (boundedness) of the effective stress turns out to be the direct result of the properties attributed to the functional. The relation between the effective stress and the elastic strain shows a strong similarity to the stress–strain relation known in the nonlocal continuum mechanics and thus reveals the nonlocal character of fatigue. Some well-known effective stress methods, like the so-called critical distance methods (Moore, Peterson, Taylor), the stress averaging method by Neuber, etc., are exemplified. It turns out that these methods differ from each other only in the integral kernels chosen for the functional. The question of the proper stress needed for the description of the statistical size effect is critically examined. Also the topic of the fatigue strength at the micro-scale is discussed. The Neuber method, a special case of the general theory, will be applied to V-notches and seam welds in Part II of this paper.

Liquefaction and post-liquefaction settlement assessment — A probabilistic approach

Low velocity surface layers can significantly increase ground accelerations during earthquakes. When saturated sandy sediments are present, because of pore pressure increase, decrease of soil strength or even liquefaction can occur. Some volume change follows the dissipation of excess pore pressure after the earthquake resulting surface settlements. To determine the liquefaction probability and post-liquefaction settlement is very important for critical facilities e.g. for the site of Paks Nuclear Power Plant, Hungary. Pore pressure increase and so the liquefaction and surface settlements depend on the characteristics of seismic loading and soil parameters. To quantify the extent of these phenomena is rather difficult. Uncertainties arise both from the probabilistic nature of the earthquake loading and from the simplifications of soil models as well. In the paper, the most important semi-empirical and dynamical effective stress methods for liquefaction and post-liquefaction settlement assessment are summarized. Most significant contributors to the uncertainties are highlighted, and particular examples through the investigation of Paks NPP site are given. Finally, a probabilistic procedure is proposed where the uncertainties will be taken into account by applying a logic tree methodology. At the same time, the uncertainties are reduced by the use of site-specific UHRS and stress reduction factors.

고강도강 맞대기 용접 시험편의 루트갭 변경에 따른 피로강도 평가

In this study, a series of fatigue tests was conducted to evaluate fatigue strength for the root gap difference with high strength steel with butt welded joints. A finite element analysis using effective notch stress method was also performed to compare effective notch factors each other with butt welded specimens made by copper backing. The results of fatigue tests were classified according to the root gap difference. Fatigue life of butt welded specimens is presented for determining the root gap of high strength steel with butt welded joints in terms of fatigue strength. Then effective notch stress was applied to interpret fatigue strength of butt welded specimen model which is reflected actual measured dimensions. As a result, fatigue strength of high strength steel with butt welded specimens is increased by root gap gets longer in length.

The Shaft Capacity of Displacement Piles in Clay: A State of the Art Review

The rapid expansion of the offshore wind sector, coupled with increasing demand for high rise structures, has placed renewed demand on the driven piling market. In light of this industry growth, this paper reviews the evolution of design approaches for calculating the shaft capacity of displacement piles installed in cohesive soils. The transition from traditional total stress design towards effective stress methods is described. Complex stress–strain changes occur during pile installation, equalisation and load testing and as a consequence, the selection of parameters for use in conventional earth-pressure type effective stress approaches is not straight-forward. These problems have led to the development of empirical correlations between shaft resistance and in situ tests, such as the cone penetration tests. However, many of these approaches are limited because they were developed for specific geological conditions. Significant insight into pile behaviour has been obtained from recent model pile tests, which included reliable measurements of radial effective stresses. These tests have allowed factors such as friction fatigue and interface friction to be included explicitly in design methods. Whilst analytical methods have been developed to investigate pile response, these techniques cannot yet fully describe the complete stress–strain history experienced by driven piles. The use of analytical methods in examining features of pile behaviour, such as the development of pore pressure during installation and the effects of pile end geometry on pile capacity, is discussed.

METHODOLOGY TO CALCULATE THE FRACTURE GRADIENT IN A TECTONICALLY ACTIVE ZONE: AN APPLICATION IN COLOMBIAN FOOTHILLS

Fracture gradient estimates are fundamental to predict the pressure required to hydraulically fracture a formation. The main objective of this work is to propose a new methodology to calculate a fracture gradient value based on the application of two new different methods: Pseudo-Overburden Stress Method and Effective Stress Method. These new methods were obtained by modifying and improving two approaches proposed in the literature, putting them in a logic and systematic order, making possible their application to onshore wells, incorporating a new function to calculate calibration constants with the less associated uncertainty, and broadening their scope of application to involve formations at depths different from the initial calibration depths by including a new sub-process. Furthermore, they involve input field parameters: fracture gradient, vertical stress and pore pressure, which describe the geomechanical conditions of the formation. This methodology is validated in the Mirador Superior and Barco formations in Colombian Foothills. Results are compared to values obtained from MinifracTM field data. Application of this methodology allows prediction of reliable fracture gradient values.

Effective stress analysis of piles in liquefiable soil

When evaluating the seismic performance of pile foundations in liquefiable soils, it is critically important to estimate the effects of cyclic ground displacements on the pile response. Advanced analyses based on the effective stress principle account for these effects in great detail by simulating the process of pore pressure build-up and associated stress-strain behaviour of soils. For this reason, the effective stress method has been established as a principal tool for the analysis and assessment of seismic performance of important engineering structures.
 In this paper, effective stress analysis is applied to a case study of a bridge pier founded on piles in liquefiable soil. The study examines the likely effects of liquefaction, cyclic ground displacements and soil-structure interaction on the bridge foundation during a strong earthquake. A fully coupled effective stress method of analysis is used to compute the dynamic response of the soil-pile-bridge system. In the analysis, an elastoplastic deformation law based on a state concept interpretation is used for modelling nonlinear behaviour of sand. The seismic performance of the pile foundation is discussed using computed time histories and maximum values of ground and pile displacements, excess pore water pressure and pile bending moments. The advantages of the effective stress analysis are discussed through comparisons with a more conventional pseudo-static analysis of piles.

A Consistent Soil Fatigue Framework Based on the Number of Equivalent Cycles

Cyclic soil degradation and hardening affects soil stiffness and strength, and is linked to an increase or decrease in the mean effective confining stress due to void ratio or pore pressure changes. This change of state can be explicitly modeled by using effective stress methods, or implicitly modeled using total stress methods. In the latter, this is achieved by using empirical functions based on the number of loading cycles that are derived from constant-amplitude stress or strain laboratory tests. To suite generalized loading conditions, these functions must be extrapolated to variable-amplitude loading. This falls under the general class of a fatigue-based problem. The main focus of this paper is to present a generalized consistent soil fatigue formulation for soils under cyclic loading. The paper then goes on to discuss the implementation of various cyclic soil degradation and hardening models reported in the literature, and highlights their important underlying assumptions, capabilities and limitations.

Lower and Upper Bounds of Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Ceramic/Metal Composites

In this paper, the lower and upper bounds of Young’s modulus and Poisson ratio are determined by the effective stress method and effective strain method from material mechanics. The effective heat flux method based on the hypothesis of equivalent temperature difference and the effective temperature difference method based on the hypothesis of equivalent heat flux are proposed, the lower and upper bounds of the thermal conductivity of ceramic/metal composite material are determined similarly. The result shows that the property values of ceramic/metal composites calculated from current theoretical property formulas are within the lower and upper bounds determined by the above methods.

Evaluation of ground motion characteristics, effects of local geology and liquefaction susceptibility: the case of Itea, Corinth Gulf (Greece)

In the present paper we analyze the effect of local geology on ground motion by means of numerical calculations (numerical models) using total (TS) and effective stress (ES) methods. These numerical calculations have been applied to the site of Itea, Corinth Gulf, which was chosen based on liquefaction susceptibility criteria and field inspection. Data from seismic refraction experiments and cone penetration test N-values as well as selected records of ground motion in nearby areas were used to construct the input file for the numerical model. By means of␣dynamic analysis such characteristics of ground motion as acceleration time histories, response spectra, and amplification function were evaluated. A one-dimensional soil amplification effect was clearly shown. Liquefaction probability at the Itea site was predicted based on the safety factor and the calculation of the induced settlement at the test site. Results of the TS and ES modeling lead us to conclude: (1) the presence of soft soil at Itea caused significant amplification (almost 2.5-fold higher magnitude) of the underlying bedrock motion and, therefore, can contribute to damage; (2) the area of Itea is highly susceptible to liquefaction due to presence of silty sand deposits at depths between 2.48 m (the position of the water table) and 12 m that demonstrate the rapid growth of the excess pore water pressure (EPWP) ratio with an increase in peak ground acceleration values.

EFFECTIVE STRESS FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF PILE-SOIL INTERACTION PROBLEMS

The effective stress method is developed to predict the axial capacity of piles in clay. Thismethod is based on the principle that, at failure, the available shear resistance at the pile soilinterface is related to the mean normal effective stress at the pile face and the effective stressfriction angle for the soil sliding on the pile material.In this paper, the coupled non-linear finite element method is used to analyze some pile-soilinteraction problems. This computer program ( CRISP ) is used for this task. Eight- nodeisoparametric elements were used for displacements while four- node elements are used forpore pressure. Interface elements are used to simulate the interaction between the pile and thesoil. The soil is assumed to follow different models, linear elastic and modified Cam-claymodel. A comparison is made between the measured and predicted settlements and excesspore water pressures and good convergence was obtained in which the proposed techniqueused in this paper, in which the measured excess pore water pressures are considered as initialpore pressures in the computer program ( CRISP ). No load was applied on the pile. Thedissipation of excess pore water was studied through carrying out consolidation analysis.