Effective Anti-corruption Strategies Research Articles

EFFECTIVENESS OF MECHANISMS OF ANTI-CORRUPTION MANAGEMENT IN MODERN CONDITIONS

The relevance of the issue of anti-corruption management in the modern world cannot be overestimated. Corruption has a direct impact on economic development, political stability and social justice in different countries, creating obstacles to effective governance and undermining public trust in state institutions. The development and implementation of effective anti-corruption strategies is a key factor in strengthening democracy and supporting sustainable development, and it plays an important role in preventing economic and social losses related to corrupt practices. The research results emphasize that the effectiveness of anti-corruption management to a large extent depends on the implementation and adherence to key principles such as transparency, responsibility and active participation of civil society. These principles contribute to the creation of trust and openness in government, which is essential for combating corruption. The cultural features of each country are crucial in the development of effective anti-corruption strategies since they determine the perception and reaction of society to corrupt practices. The academic paper also draws attention to the need to strike a balance between strict anti-corruption measures and ensuring respect for human rights, emphasizing that the effectiveness of the fight against corruption should not be at the expense of fundamental human and civil rights and freedoms.

The role of International Civil Society Organizations in democratization: A crisp-set QCA approach to anti-corruption in Ghana.

An anti-corruption strategy is essential in the process of continuous democratisation for effective governance. The objective of our study is to examine the mechanisms that contribute to an effective anticorruption strategy in a case study of civil society organisations in Ghana. These CSO cases illustrate the efforts of non-state actors to promote democracy in their interactions with Ghana's government. A model of anticorruption strategy and the crisp-set qualitative comparative analysis (cs-QCA) method were employed to examine 264 cases of local civil societies in Ghana that responded to questions on the conditions for an effective anticorruption strategy. Our results indicate that no single condition is sufficient as an anti-corruption strategy. However, the role of international civil society organisations (RISCO) is necessary for any anticorruption strategy. RISCO has to be combined with freedom of expression, good leadership, fear of punishment, and training to provide an effective strategy. On the other hand, despite the fear of punishment, social trust and leadership, rules and regulations, and training, the absence of RISCO explains all ineffective anticorruption strategies. Therefore, Ghana's anti-corruption strategy must always consider the role of organisations such as Amnesty International (AI), Transparency International (TI), and the Global Organization of Parliamentarians against Corruption (GOPAC) in mitigating corruption. Policymakers should therefore promote the presence of international civil society in Ghana because they ultimately contribute to democratization in addition to all government effort.

Latency as a feature of corruption crime

The article analyzes latent corruption crime and the problems of its detection, the reasons for its existence and growth. The author emphasizes the importance of studying this issue given the extremely high level of latency of corruption crime, which creates significant problems in combating it. It is noted that when studying the level of natural latency of corruption offenses, it is advisable to use the methodology of criminological stratification of society, but with a large-scale victimization study.
 The author also proposes other methods of studying the latency of corruption offenses. The author emphasizes that the list of such methods is not exhaustive. And a more accurate picture of the real indicators of the latency of corruption crime can be obtained only with the integrated application of various methods and comparison of the results obtained.
 It is noted that one of the reasons for the latency of corruption crime is a specific relationship in which none of the parties involved is considered a victim or a victimized party, and the party impedes the criminal prosecution conducted by law enforcement agencies so that they do not learn about the commission of a criminal offense.
 The author reveals the relevance and importance of combating the latency of corruption crime.
 The author concludes that a true assessment of governmental corruption, the extent of corruption, and the nature of corruption helps to make a correct assessment of the situation with corruption and its structure, to predict its possible development and consequences, to formulate effective anti-corruption strategies and tactics, and to identify adequate means of preventing corruption in Ukraine.
 The specificity of relations in corruption offenses, specific methods of their commission and related methods of concealment reflect the existing high level of latency of corruption offenses. The latency of corruption is a reason that prevents the detection of such criminal offenses directly during their preparation or commission and does not allow to focus on the specific conditions and circumstances necessary for their elimination. All of these facts significantly complicate the process of detecting corruption offenses, which is characterized by the need to use complex methods and specific tools and measures that differ from those used to detect and prove other types of criminal offenses.

Роль емоцій під час прийняття корупційних рішень і дій

Background. Researching the role of emotions in making corrupt decisions and actions is an urgent task, since corruption remains a serious threat to society and the economy in many countries. One of the aspects of the problem of corrupt behavior is the role of emotions when making corrupt decisions and actions. The concept of norms states that participating in or observing corruption leads to different emotions depending on the prevailing norms. Emotions signal adherence to norms and thus regulate people's behavior. The system of norms determines the connection between emotions and corruption, inspires new research and forms anti-corruption policy. The purpose of the article is to reveal and understand how emotions influence a person's personal decision to participate in corrupt practices. Methods. To determine the role of emotions in some cases of corruption, the following methods were used: selection, study and analysis of corruption stories. Results. Conducted theoretical and empirical studies confirm that numerous emotions, both positive and negative, serve as factors of corruption. Empirical studies show that fear and anxiety about punishment reduce the willingness to participate in corrupt practices. Theoretical studies also suggest that feelings of shame and guilt have a negative effect on propensity for corruption, but these theories have not been supported by evidence. There is currently no explanation for this conflicting evidence. C o n c l u s i o n s . The results obtained within this study can have an important practical impact on the development of effective anti-corruption strategies and policies aimed at reducing corruption in various spheres of society. Understanding the role of emotions in corruption decisions can contribute to more successful measures to solve this serious problem. The results of the study can also serve as a basis for developing a deeper understanding of the psychology of corruption and contribute to the creation of more successful measures to solve this problem.

Mathematical Modeling and Analysis of Corruption Dynamics in Kenya

This study presents a mathematical model that aims to study corruption in Kenya. The model is validated both epidemiologically and mathematically, with all solutions demonstrating positivity and boundedness within a meaningful set of initial conditions. By investigating unique corruption-free and endemic equilibrium points, as well as computing the basic reproduction number, we assess the system’s behavior. Our analysis reveals that a locally asymptotically stable corruption-free equilibrium point is achieved when the reproduction number is below one, while a locally asymptotically stable endemic equilibrium point is attained when the reproduction number exceeds one. Simulation results confirm the agreement with analytical findings. This research enhances our understanding of corruption dynamics and provides valuable insights for designing effective anti-corruption strategies in Kenya.

Govtech against corruption: What are the integrity dividends of government digitalization?

Abstract Does digitalization reduce corruption? What are the integrity benefits of government digitalization? While the correlation between digitalization and corruption is well established, there is less actionable evidence on the integrity dividends of specific digitalization reforms on different types of corruption and the policy channels through which they operate. These linkages are especially relevant in high corruption risk environments. This article unbundles the integrity dividends of digital reforms undertaken by governments around the world, accelerated by the pandemic. It analyzes the rise of data-driven integrity analytics as promising tools in the anticorruption space deployed by tech-savvy integrity actors. It also assesses the broader integrity benefits of the digitalization of government services and the automation of bureaucratic processes, which contribute to reducing bribe solicitation risks by front-office bureaucrats. It analyzes in particular the impact of digitalization on social transfers. It argues that government digitalization can be an implicit yet effective anticorruption strategy, with subtler yet deeper effects, but there needs to be greater synergies between digital reforms and anticorruption strategies.

Corruption in the physiotherapy sector in Iran: common drivers and potential combating strategies

Background Globally, there is an unprecedented demand for physical rehabilitation services due to, among others, an increase in non-communicable diseases, and the ageing of the population. Iran is no exception and epidemiological trends suggest that population needs for physiotherapy services will rise significantly. However, inadequate insurance coverage, weak stewardship, the predominant role of the private sector in service delivery, and inappropriate supervision have created a favourable environment for corrupt practices in the Iranian physiotherapy sector. Objectives To identify drivers of corruption and potential combating strategies for the physiotherapy sector from the perspective of key stakeholders: physiotherapists, academics, and health policymakers. Methods In-depth semi-structured interviews were performed to explore physiotherapists', academics', and health policymakers' perceptions about corruption in Iranian physiotherapy sector. The individuals were recruited using purposive and snowball sampling. Thematic content analysis was used to analyse transcripts and identify relevant themes. Results On the whole, 22 individuals (5 physiotherapists, 8 academics, and 9 health policymakers) agreed to take part in the interviews. Several drivers and determinants of corruption in the physiotherapy sector as well as potential combating strategies were identified across five categories: (1) government regulator function, (2) payer function, (3) providers function, (4) suppliers function, and (5) patients function. Conclusions Corruption represents a real threat in the physiotherapy sector in Iran impeding accessibility and utilisation of rehabilitation services and therefore is a serious barrier to the achievement of Sustainable Developments Goals. Development and adoption of effective anti-corruption strategies are therefore necessary.

18.G. Workshop: Feasible and effective anti-corruption for public health: from analysis and advocacy to action

Abstract Being able to identify corruption and call corrupt officials, health workers and citizens to account is critical in ensuring that public health policy and practice is shaped by evidence and reason rather than by powerful political forces. Despite substantial financial investments by bilateral and multilateral agencies to combat corruption, twenty years of initiatives based on good governance, improving law and changing regulatory approaches have been hugely disappointing - failing to effect significant changes in low- and middle-income countries. Public health activism on corruption is stepping up, diverse groups of actors are organizing around the threat that corruption creates to UHC, equity, social justice and the drive for global solidarity. They cannot rely on traditional good governance accountability and transparency approaches that pay insufficient attention to combinations of poor policy, under-funding and powerful interests that shape health systems, create perverse incentives, the need for survival corruption. To be effective, we need evidence of feasible and effective anti-corruption strategies. In this workshop, building on two years of theory development, qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis in health services in LMICS we will set how feasible and effective anti-corruption strategies can be crafted and implemented. The session will introduce the Anti-Corruption Evidence ('ACE approach') and the idea of “developmental governance”. These have been used in other sectors but this is the first time that they have been applied to health. The approach is innovative in its targeted approach and focus on welfare-enhancing policies, seeking out space where for action that simultaneously tackles corruption and improves health systems but which is also politically and institutionally feasible to introduce. These strategies mark a shift away from blue-prints, interventions applied across countries without attending to context. We will use this workshop to show participants how to attend to the ways in which power and politics, culture and social networks shape health seeking and health care provision and how targeted, politically sensitive strategies offer the best anti-corruption solutions. Key messages New approaches to anti-corruption are critical for public health. Context-sensitive politically feasible, welfare-enhancing interventions offer the best way forward for anti-corruption.

Fighting Corruption in Russia: Its Characteristics and Purpose

This article examines possible reasons for the inefficiency of criminal policy in the fight against corruption in modern Russia and presents a critical analysis of the role of the supreme state authorities responsible for the development and implementation of criminal laws. It is noted that corruption is functional for the stable development of the Russian authoritarian system, which is based on relations of patrimonial capitalism. The real purpose of campaigns against corruption is emphasized, and it is argued that the implementation of an effective anti-corruption strategy is impossible in modern Russia since this presupposes a threat to the survival of its political and economic model.

Policy Considerations for Designing Effective Anti-Corruption Strategies in Pakistan

This article focuses on analyzing essential ingredients to initiate and sustain a successful anticorruption strategy. The basic objective of this policy paper is to recommend a set of policies based on the lessons drawn from the success of anti-corruption strategies in other countries. Taking Pakistan as the test-bed, it relates to the design, initiation, and pursuit of anti-corruption activities. The article elaborates a six-step anti-corruption strategy suggesting that to eradicate corruption effectively, the country must initiate these preconditions. It should: (1) restore the public confidence by showing political will to fight corruption; (2) restructure its main anti-corruption agency; (3) establish an anti-corruption inter-agency coordinating board; (4) reform the police, (5) initiate programs and curriculum for anti-corruption awareness; (6) establish a watchdog from the civil society with an advisory role. The strategies suggested in this article are based on the successes of anti-corruption agencies in Singapore, Hong Kong, Indonesia, and Georgia.

How Not to Fight Corruption: Lessons from China

The most effective anticorruption strategies combine prevention and enforcement. Yet the political payoffs are greater for enforcement-centered strategies, even though they often fail to achieve durable objectives. Autocratic regimes with endemic corruption thus tend to prefer enforcement-centered anticorruption strategies: they are easier to contain, while prevention-centered strategies risk undermining the rulers’ bases of power. This explains why the ruling Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has consistently favored an enforcement-centered anticorruption strategy. However, an overemphasis on enforcement, in the Chinese political context at least, has resulted in the politicization of anticorruption efforts and a lack of sustainability of such efforts.

Using risk assessments to address corruption in mining

Transparent and accountable mining can contribute to sustainable development. This begins with corruption-free approvalsthe very first link in the mining value chain when decisions are made about whether, where, and under what circumstances to permit mining, including who is awarded licences or contracts. This viewpoint introduces the Mining Awards Corruption Risk Assessment Tool developed by the global civil society anti-corruption coalition, Transparency International. Corruption in mining approvals can result in environmentally unsound and socially destructive mining projects being approved, rights to a country's mineral wealth being granted to unqualified or unethical operators, and politicians or government officials taking advantage of their position to profit from their interests in the sector. Corruption at the start of the mine lifecycle compromises the rest of the processimpairing how operations are monitored and regulated, undermining the collection of taxes and royalties and damaging the mining industry's social licence to operate. Identifying, assessing and then managing the risks of corruption are integral to effective anti-corruption strategies.

Does corruption limit FDI and economic growth? Evidence from MENA countries

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to analyze the effects of corruption on investment and growth in 15 Middle East and North African (MENA) countries during the period 1985-2013. The authors used the International Country Risk Guide (ICRG) corruption index and conducted a panel cointegration analysis and Granger causality procedure to detect the dynamic relationships between the variables. Results indicate that corruption is a serious hurdle to economic growth in MENA countries since it affects investment activities and foreign direct investment inflows. In this case, policymakers have to implement effective anti-corruption strategies to avoid the epidemic of corruption.Design/methodology/approachThe authors used the ICRG corruption index and conducted a panel cointegration analysis and Granger causality procedure to detect the dynamic relationships between the variables.FindingsThe main findings of this paper show that corruption is a serious hurdle to economic growth in MENA countries since it affects investment activities and foreign direct investment inflows. In this case, policymakers have to implement effective anti-corruption strategies to avoid the epidemic of corruption.Research limitations/implicationsUnfortunately, in this study the authors did not use institutional variables to see their role and to judge whether governments should enhance the quality of institution and improve the corporate governance. This would be an opportunity to expand the sample and to conduct a new research in the near future to assess the real costs of corruption in the MENA region.Practical implicationsGovernments and policymakers need to apprehend and admit that corruption is an important issue that deters foreign direct investment and threats the economic development and growth. Corruption can also deteriorate the infrastructure and increase the cost of doing business for both government and private sector which in turn will lower the growth (Tanzi and Doovi, 1997). It is worth recalling that during the past five years, a large part of the MENA region has witnessed multiple social upheavals. Hence, corruption must be tackled effectively and coherently to avoid further social tensions. It is the proper time to take serious steps and strict policy actions within a zero-tolerance framework to fight corruption and its widespread. New rules, laws, and anti-corruption procedures are among the most important initiatives that governments should implement. The governments should also increase the public awareness of the multiple drawbacks of corruption by publishing official reports and data on the most corrupted sector in the country. In this case, media will have a key role to diffuse the necessary information.Originality/valueWhile most of the previous studies have employed GMM and OLS techniques, the authors opt a panel vector error correction model and cointegration technique to detect causality between the variables used in the model for the present study.

Structuring supervisory board for an anti-corruption strategy: a new application of a compliance system

PurposeThe aim of this paper is to examine a relevant innovation in terms of how corporate supervisory boards are structured for an effective measure of anti-corruption that concerns a new application of Italian Legislative Decree No. 231/2001 in compliance with the obligations set out by OECD Convention of 17 September 1997 on the fight against corruption.Design/methodology/approachThe research hypotheses which lead the study are based on an empirical analysis of 119 nursing homes with the aim of investigating the state-of-the art of this innovative application especially regarding the composition, effectiveness and functioning of the supervisory board in the unique case when this compliance system becomes compulsory.FindingsThe results show how, even though a certain level of uncertainty and ambiguity have led to great variance in the ways the compliance system is drafted, was possible to identify a positive relation between supervisory board composition and performance – that is the effectiveness of anti-corruption system – and a negative relation between board size and performance. Finally, the results suggest the relevance of supervisory board in fostering knowledge as mediating role.Research limitations/implicationsThe authors believes that future work using inter-temporal modelling could build upon and extend the insights presented here. A second area arises from those contrasts in board characteristics that are present across countries and/or across company’s size, small- and medium-sized enterprises or multinational companies and/or across industrial sectors.Practical implicationsThe authors offers a more nuanced understanding of the linkages between corporate governance and anti-corruption. In particular, the paper suggests that for an effective anti-corruption strategy, larger supervisory board sizes are associated with weaker performance, and a greater external composition is preferable to an internal one.Originality/valueThe paper depicts a first and relevant step toward the identification of best practices of corporate governance as anti-corruption system, relating to an innovative and unique – to the date – application of a compliance system based on the supervisory board.

Strategy for Democracy: Why and How to Get Money Out of Politics

Even President Trump's inaugural identified as his central issue whether our government is controlled by the people.” Polls show this to be a leading public concern that is ignored by the bipartisan political establishment which controls government for the plutocrats who pay to play instead of for the people who vote. (Ch. 1) This issue of failed democracy likely accounts for Trump's victory over the Clintons' plutocratic political machine which offered more diversionary identity politics but no plausible solution to the systemic political corruption Trump described. See also this author's Amendment Diversion, http://ssrn.com/abstract=2722336. That plutocratic rule generates extreme inequality while threatening catastrophe on several other vectors is focusing attention on its cause. (Ch. 2). While some recognize the cause of political corruption, no one, much less Trump, has offered an effective strategy to solve the deepening problem that democracy has been replaced by plutocracy. (Ch. 3) Bernie Sanders who made this issue a cornerstone of his campaign against Clinton had no better strategy to offer than the futility of advocating a constitutional amendment. This is the standard diversion from effective anti-corruption strategy that is offered by the corrupt Democratic Party and its professional activist allies. Citizens United has been the diversionary target of such advocacy, though it is of minor importance to the problem. Even worse is the professional activists' sloganeering about corporate personhood which is rooted in a fiction about what the infamous Citizens United decision in fact held. (Ch. 4)The immediate cause of the current crisis of democracy is not the lack of constitutional amendments but a judicial supremacist Supreme Court (Ch. 5) Plutocracy precludes progressive amendments in any event. (Ch. 6) Judicial supremacists, in any event, distort the meaning of amendments as they have the First Amendment, which does not require toleration of influence peddling and paid plutocratic propaganda in elections. The supremacist Court's 1976 ruling that it does, based on shell-game logic, has ushered in this second Gilded Age, our era of systemic political corruption. (Intro, Ch. 7) Professional activists who market the amendment diversion as if it were a cure for this problem have objectives other than restoring democracy. (Ch. 8) The history of constitutional amendments teaches that this commonly touted, but seldom analyzed amendment “solution” is a counterproductive waste of political energy to counter an act of judicial supremacy. (Ch. 9) This book decries the general void in strategic thinking on the key progressive objective of fighting plutocracy. It suggests effective strategies to solve the contemporary crisis of democracy within the provisions of the original Constitution. (Ch. 10,11). It proposes a fully realized draft of a federal statute that would be a useful initial demand for effective national reform and a starting point for further strategic discussion. (Ch.12)

Learning from Singapore’s effective anti-corruption strategy

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explain why Singapore has succeeded in curbing corruption and to recommend three measures for enhancing South Korea’s anti-corruption strategy.Design/methodology/approachThe paper compares the contextual differences between Singapore and South Korea before analysing Singapore’s effective anti-corruption strategy and identifying the weaknesses of South Korea’s anti-corruption strategy.FindingsSingapore’s success in minimising corruption is the result of its government’s strong political will and the adequate budget, personnel and operational autonomy given to the Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau to enable it to enforce the anti-corruption laws impartially. To improve South Korea’s anti-corruption strategy, the Korea Anti-Corruption Agency should be established and adequately staffed and funded to investigate corruption cases. Those found guilty of corruption offences should be punished according to the law, without suspending their jail sentences or being pardoned by the president. Finally, the existing public outreach anti-corruption programmes should be evaluated to identify their weaknesses and improve their effectiveness.Originality/valueThis paper recommends three measures for South Korean policy-makers to improve their anti-corruption strategy by learning from Singapore’s success.

Investigating the Underlying Factors of Corruption in the Public Construction Sector: Evidence from China

Over recent years, the issue of corruption in the public construction sector has attracted increasing attention from both practitioners and researchers worldwide. However, limited efforts are available for investigating the underlying factors of corruption in this sector. Thus, this study attempted to bridge this knowledge gap by exploring the underlying factors of corruption in the public construction sector of China. To achieve this goal, a total of 14 structured interviews were first carried out, and a questionnaire survey was then administered to 188 professionals in China. Two iterations of multivariate analysis approaches, namely, stepwise multiple regression analysis and partial least squares structural equation modeling were successively utilized to analyze the collected data. In addition, a case study was also conducted to triangulate the findings obtained from the statistical analysis. The results generated from these three research methods achieve the same conclusion: the most influential underlying factor leading to corruption was immorality, followed by opacity, unfairness, procedural violation, and contractual violation. This study has contributed to the body of knowledge by exploring the properties of corruption in the public construction sector. The findings from this study are also valuable to the construction authorities as they can assist in developing more effective anti-corruption strategies.

Exploring the interrelationship between public service motivation and corruption theories

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the interrelationship between public service motivation (PSM) and corruption theory. This paper further explores the possibility of integrating two theories in order to prevent corruption. Design/methodology/approach – Existing theories on PSM and corruption were briefly reviewed in finding the connection between the two theories. The discussions primarily focus on finding the theoretical and empirical interrelationship between PSM theories and corruption theories. Findings – This paper suggests applying PSM theories in preventing corruption by adding ethical dimension of PSM to corruption theories. In other words, the PSM constructs can be incorporated in developing an anti-corruption strategy. In the context of public administration, the authors find the importance of PSM theory in developing an effective anti-corruption strategy. Practical implications – Public officials should be encouraged to possess strong ethical standards in public service; highly motivated candidates for public service positions should be sought in order to create a clean and reliable government; and PSM educational programs in the early stages of schooling should be adopted to stimulate ethics for young children. Originality/value – This study adds contributions to the understanding of theoretical relationship between PSM and corruption theory. The authors suggest that integrating PSM and corruption theory can be beneficial in building new paradigms to prevent corruption in a country such as Korea.

The Role of Accounting Reform in Deterring Corruption Practices in the Public Sector: A Case Study in Kurdistan Region

There is an increasing focus on the subject of corruption around the world. The aim of this research is to investigate the impact of accounting reform on Kurdistan region with respect to corruption. The methodology used in this study is the qualitative interpretive method and the main tool for collecting data was the semi-structured interviews, through a case study on the Kurdistan region (Iraq). According to the literature and findings of this research, there is a relationship between the accounting system and corruption. Further, an efficient accounting system is regarded as one of the effective anti-corruption strategies. The Kurdistan region can increase the level of accountability and transparency in the public sector by reforming its current accounting processes, which will thus lead to the reduction in cases of corruption. Some essential changes have been suggested by the respondents to increase government accountability and transparency such as shifting from cash-basis to accrual-basis accounting, adopting international accounting standards, changing budget system from input-line to performance programme budget system, strengthening audit especially external auditors, updating the accounting curriculum and computerising the accounting system. These will improve the accounting system and thus aid in fighting corruption.

Political independence, operational impartiality, and the effectiveness of anti-corruption agencies

Purpose– This purpose of this paper is to discuss the relationship between political independence and operational impartiality in regard to the effectiveness of anti-corruption agencies (ACAs). Against this background of western orthodoxy, it asks whether a non-western country with high levels of corruption (Vietnam being an example) can find another pathway in its efforts to effectively combat corruption.Design/methodology/approach– An exercise in qualitative conceptual clarification and theoretical speculation, drawing upon practical examples.Findings– It is argued that it is important to distinguish between de jure andde factopolitical independence, and that neither can be fully understood unless they are considered in relationship to other key values, particularly operational impartiality, public accountability, and systemic legitimacy, and in the context of bureaucratic politics. There is little coherent theoretical knowledge available about the relationships among these variables. Such values are central to western notions of “good government” but are much less institutionalised in non-western jurisdictions with high levels of corruption. The question is raised: can such countries, Vietnam being one example, develop effective anti-corruption strategies which because of the nature of their own political system, cannot depend on political independence for its ACAs?Originality/value– Attention is drawn to some conceptual and putatively theoretical issues relating to the effectiveness of ACAs, and which have received little explicit attention in the relevant academic literature.