Effect Of Leadership Style Research Articles

Clinical nurse managers' leadership styles and staff nurses' work engagement in Saudi Arabia: A cross-sectional study.

Effective nurse leadership enhances nurse welfare, improves patient care, and increases organisational success. A lack of adequate, supportive leadership significantly contributes to many nurses leaving the profession. Nurse managers need to prioritise engagement and retention as significant focus areas to address the nursing shortage in Saudi Arabia and accomplish the national program's objectives. To examine the correlation between the leadership styles of clinical nurse managers and staff engagement. This study used a descriptive, cross-sectional, correlational design. The leadership styles of clinical nurse managers were evaluated using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-5X). Work engagement was assessed using the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES). Questionnaires were distributed to 450 nurses in four public hospitals in western Saudi Arabia. Non-probability convenience sampling was used to collect the data. A total of 278 nurses from a range of clinical areas participated in the survey, which revealed that the leadership styles of clinical nurse managers positively or negatively impact nurse work engagement. Most clinical nurse managers exhibit transformational leadership, followed by transactional, then passive-avoidant styles. Respondents displayed a high level of work engagement, emphasising the positive impact of transformational and transactional leadership on work engagement outcomes. The findings showed significant differences in leadership styles and work engagement levels between Saudi and non-Saudi nurses across various dimensions. Understanding the effect of leadership styles employed by nurse managers on work engagement can positively impact staff retention rates and the quality of patient care. Nurse managers should participate in training programs to enhance their practical leadership skills to enhance the work engagement levels of nurses. Nurse work engagement can be improved by establishing training programs that promote effective leadership and highlight the significance of various leadership styles and their subsequent impact on nurse work engagement. Nursing students should receive education on leadership styles. Nursing leaders should be given access to mentoring programs and opportunities for career advancement to support the introduction of effective leadership styles.

PENGARUH GAYA KEPEMIMPINAN DAN KEPUASAN KERJA TERHADAP KINERJA PERAWAT DI RUANG RAWAT INAP A RSUP DR. SOERADJI TIRTONEGORO KLATEN

Inpatient services of RSUP Dr. Soeradji Tirtonegoro Klaten is a complex set of services and giving major contribution in determining the quality of service. Nurses play an important role as the spearhead of the longest and energy dealing with patients. Nurses activities reflect the image of the hospital, nurses' performance is inseparable from leadership and job satisfaction. The purpose of research is knowing the influence the effect of leadership style and job satisfaction toward performance. The type of research is quantitative research with a cross sectional design. Independent variable leadership style and job satisfaction, the dependent variable is the performance of nurses. The registered nurse population as a civil servant ( PNS ), amounting to 75 people, collecting sampling techniques total sampling. Analysis techniques of Multiple linear regression. The results is Significance value of leadership style of 0.022 (Sig.< 0,05) and job satisfaction 0.132 (Sig.> 0,05). Test results of F 15.779 with significance level of 0.000. Adjusted R2 coefficient of 28.5 %. The conclusion is 1) leadership style effect a significant toward the nurses performance, 2) job satisfaction variable does not affect the nurses performance, and 3) Leadership Style And Job Satisfaction simultaneously influence toward the nurse performance of inpatient ard A RSUP Dr. Soeradji Tirtonegoro Klaten.

Effect of Leadership on Employee Performance in Rwanda Revenue Authority

The general objective of this research study was to assess the Effect of leadership on employee performance in Rwanda Revenue Authority. The study used a multiple linear regression model. This study used a descriptive research design since it provides a researcher with first-hand primary data that is collected, maintained, and analyzed for the research goals. The current research was compassed by the following specific objectives: To establish the effect of leadership personality on employee performance at Rwanda Revenue Authority; To examine the effect of leadership styles on employee performance at Rwanda Revenue Authority; To analyze the effect of leaders’ competency on employee performance at Rwanda Revenue Authority; To analyze the influence of leaders’ commitment on employee performance at Rwanda Revenue Authority. The target population in this study was 1248 who are staff at Rwanda Revenue Authority (RRA). The researcher used purposive sampling. The sample size of the study was 269 Rwanda Revenue Authority staff selected from the known population of 1248 staff. Simply, in this study data was collected from both primary and secondary sources. The researcher distributed 269 questionnaires to the respondents, however, 265 respondents submitted in their responses while 4 respondents did not submit their responses. 56.2% of respondents strongly agreed that Leaders at RRA are considerate when dealing with subordinates which motivate staff to work and meet deadlines, 31.7% agreed with the statement, none of respondents were undecided, and 8.7% disagreed with the statement while 3.4% strongly disagreed with the statement. About the second item, 25.7% of respondents strongly agreed that Leaders at Rwanda Revenue Authority live a life of integrity at work and outside work which ignites workers to provide a quality work; 27.9% agreed with the statement, 14.7% were undecided, 24.2% disagreed with the statement while 7.5% strongly disagreed with the statement. 62.3% agreed with the statement that leaders at RRA use transformational leadership style to assist employees meet deadlines, 3.8% of respondents were undecided, and 32.8% disagreed with the statement while 1.1% strongly disagreed with the statement. Moreover, 12.1% of respondents strongly agreed that Transactional Leadership is used in Rwanda Revenue Authority by Leaders and have contributed to Quality of work; 86.8% agreed with the statement, none of respondents were undecided, 1.1% disagreed with the statement and none of respondents strongly disagreed with the statement. 63.8% agreed with the statement that leaders at RRA exhibit work expertise which makes also employees to excel in meeting deadlines, none of respondents were undecided, and 11.7% disagreed with the statement while 23.8% strongly disagreed with the statement. Likewise, 32.5% of respondents strongly agreed that Leaders at Rwanda Revenue Authority are results oriented which also encourages all employees to strive for achieving departmental goals; 67.5% agreed with the statement, none of respondents were undecided, none of respondents disagreed with the statement and none of respondents strongly disagreed with the statement. The researcher used questionnaire as data collection instrument. SPSS version 23.00 (Statistical Package for Social Scientists) was used to analyze the coded data.

Effective leadership styles for men and women in managing CIS companies

Relevance. The relevance of the issue stated in the article is due to the fact that in modern realities, despite all the achievements of feminism, gender stereotypes have a significant impact on the perception of subordinates of their supervisor, depending on whether they are a man or a woman. Purpose. The article is aimed at studying effective behavioural models among team leaders and company managers in the post-Soviet states, taking into account the gender aspect. Methodology. The leading approach in this study is the collection and analysis of information that makes it possible to comprehensively consider the problem of gender perception and leadership styles. The following research methods were used: comparative, statistical, method of structural analysis, methods of synthesis and deduction, method of classification. Results. The article presents the results of a study of effective leadership styles for men and women. The main motives for choosing each specific management style of subordinates are revealed. The analysis revealed the root causes of gender stereotypes among the top management of enterprises, as well as differences in the attitude towards women managers in Western and Eastern European countries. Conclusions. It is necessary to continue research on the development of a methodology for forming a gender balance among managers and solving the problem of preparing heads of institutions for monitoring activities for a rational approach to promoting employees to higher positions based on their professional and leadership qualities, without focusing on the gender aspect. Keywords: management; manager; behavioural models; social role characteristics; femininity and masculinity

Personality and leadership style in generation z: A quantitative study in a higher education institution in Mexico

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to discern the combination of personality traits that most contribute to effective leadership styles in individuals belonging to Generation Z.Design/methodology/approach: We utilized a structural equation model to analyze data from 244 higher education students in Mexico. This approach allowed us to examine the relationship between personality traits, leadership styles, and perceived effectiveness.Findings: Our findings indicate that the transformational leadership style is the most impactful among Generation Z individuals. Furthermore, the personality traits of openness and conscientiousness emerged as the most influential in relation to effective leadership styles.Research limitations/implications: Despite valuable insights, limitations exist due to small sample size (n=244) from one institution, restricting generalizability. The cross-sectional nature provides a snapshot, not accounting for societal/technological shifts affecting Generation Z over time. Self-reported data may suffer from biases. The cultural context focuses solely on a Mexican educational setting. Future research calls for larger, more diverse samples across institutions/countries with longitudinal data to offer enhanced, nuanced understanding of evolving leadership and personality traits within Generation Z.Practical implications: Organizations could enhance effectiveness by fostering transformational leadership among Generation Z employees through coaching/training programs tailored for this cohort. Academically, business curricula would benefit from integrating insights on aligning leadership styles with inherent personality traits.Social Implications: Transformational leadership emergence within Generation Z may propagate leaders equipped to drive innovation, convey visionary goals, and evoke follower commitment to address pressing societal issues.Originality/value: To our knowledge, this study represents the first investigation within the Mexican context examining the interplay of personality traits, leadership styles, and effectiveness among Generation Z individuals.

The effect of leadership style on performance with psychological capital as moderating

An organization must have more value in terms of human resources in order to compete with other organizations. The organization in implementing the work program that has been prepared basically always aims to achieve organizational goals. One way is to improve employee performance. Performance is the result or level of success of a person as a whole during a certain period in carrying out tasks. This study was conducted to determine the effect of leadership style on performance with psychological capital as moderating on employees of the Faculty of Sport Sciences, Padang State University. Independent variables in this study include leadership style, while employee performance is used as the dependent variable and psychological capital as a moderating variable. The sampling technique was carried out by saturated sampling which made the entire population as a sample obtained as many as 66 employees at the Faculty of Sports Science, Padang State University. By using an instrument in the form of a questionnaire which is analyzed using SEM-PLS analysis, where the results obtained are leadership style has a significant and positive effect on employee performance. Psychological capital can moderate leadership style on employee performance. It is recommended that the leadership of the Faculty of Sports Science, Padang State University needs to provide development training, update the knowledge of employees, because in filling out the questionnaire the respondents are still low in skillful value compared to the standard procedures that exist in work.

The Role of Leadership Style, Motivation, and Discipline in Employee Performance at BKPSDM of Kepulauan Selayar Regency

This research was conducted with the aim: (1) To Analyse and Explain the Effect of Leadership Style on Employee Performance at the Personnel and Human Resources Development Agency (BKPSDM) of Selayar Islands Regency, (2) To Analyse and Explain the Effect of Motivation on Employee Performance at the Personnel and Human Resources Development Agency (BKPSDM) of Selayar Islands Regency and (3) To Analyse and Explain the Effect of Discipline on Employee Performance at the Personnel and Human Resources Development Agency (BKPSDM) of Selayar Islands Regency. The research methods used in this research are Descriptive Analysis, Multiple Linear Regression Analysis, Instrument Test and Hypothesis Test with a sample size of 66 respondents. Based on the results of multiple linear regression analysis, the results showed that (1) Leadership style has a negative and insignificant effect on the performance of BKPSDM Selayar Islands Regency, (2) Motivation has a positive and significant effect on the performance of BKPSDM Selayar Islands Regency and (3) Discipline has a positive and significant effect on the performance of BKPSDM Selayar Islands Regency.

The Influence of Leadership Style, Team Work and Work Experience on the Performance of PT Nutrilab Pratama Jakarta Employees

Human resources are the central factor in an organization. Whatever the form and purpose, the organization is founded on a vision for the common good, and in the implementation of its mission is managed and managed by humans. Labor or employees are the most valuable resources in the organization. The phenomenon in this study is the existence of employee performance problems. Based on the observations of researchers in the field that the decline in employee performance is caused by several things, namely leadership style, team work and work experience, the purpose of this study is to analyze the effect of leadership style on employee performance. To analyze the effect of team work on employee performance. To analyze the effect of work experience on employee performance. In this research proposal using quantitative methods. Data collection using a questionnaire, made a number of questions to be filled in by respondents. The population in this study were all employees who worked at PT Nutrilab Pratama Jakarta, totaling 52 people. The sampling technique used is saturated sampling, that is, the total sample is used as a whole. The method used in this study is to use the SPSS 26.0 method Based on the results of leadership style has no effect on employee performance. team work has a positive and significant effect on performance and work experience has a positive and significant effect on performance.

Pengaruh Sikap Kerja Dan Gaya Kepemimpinan Terhadap Kinerja Pegawai Pada Kantor Bea Dan Cukai Belawan

This research aims to analyze the influence of work attitudes and leadership styles on employee performance at the Belawan Customs and Excise Office. A positive work attitude and effective leadership style are considered key factors in improving employee performance in an office environment. The research method uses a quantitative approach by distributing questionnaires to employees at the Belawan Customs and Excise Office. Data analysis was carried out using descriptive statistical techniques and regression to measure the relationship between work attitude variables, leadership style and employee performance. The research results show that a positive work attitude has a significant influence on employee performance. Apart from that, an effective leadership style also has a positive contribution to employee performance at the Belawan Customs and Excise Office. These findings provide further understanding about the importance of creating a Leadership Style that supports positive work attitudes and implementing an effective leadership style to increase employee productivity and quality of performance. The recommendations of this research include the need to develop training programs to increase positive work attitudes and promote supportive leadership styles in the Belawan Customs and Excise Office Leadership Style. In addition, further research can be conducted to explore additional factors that may influence employee performance

Assessing the Effectiveness of Leadership Styles among Nurses in Tertiary Hospitals of Peshawar

Background: The healthcare sector increasingly recognizes the importance of leadership styles in shaping the work environment, employee satisfaction, and patient care outcomes. Leadership within nursing teams, particularly in tertiary hospitals, plays a crucial role in addressing the challenges of healthcare delivery and staff retention. The diversity in leadership styles—authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire—offers various approaches to managing nursing teams and influencing healthcare outcomes. Objective: This study aimed to assess the prevalence of different leadership styles among nurses working in tertiary hospitals in Peshawar and to explore their impact on nursing practice and healthcare delivery. Methods: A cross-sectional study design was employed, involving 240 nurses from Khyber Teaching Hospital and Lady Reading Hospital in Peshawar. Participants were selected using a convenience sampling technique. A structured questionnaire, comprising socio-demographic items and leadership style assessments, was utilized for data collection. Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS version 25, focusing on frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations to evaluate the distribution of leadership styles. Results: The majority of participants reported a high range of authoritarian (44.2%), democratic (44.2%), and laissez-faire (46.3%) leadership styles. The prevalence of very high range was significant for authoritarian (43.3%) and democratic (40%) styles, indicating a strong inclination towards these leadership approaches among nursing staff. The study also highlighted a positive association between democratic leadership styles and job satisfaction among nurses. Conclusion: The findings underscore the diversity of leadership styles among nurses in tertiary hospitals in Peshawar, with a notable preference for authoritarian and democratic approaches. This diversity suggests the need for flexible leadership training programs tailored to the dynamic requirements of healthcare settings. Enhancing leadership skills among nurses is crucial for improving healthcare delivery and achieving better patient care outcomes.

The Effect of Laissez-Faire Leadership Style on Academic Performance of Primary School Pupils in Selected Primary Schools in Kasese District

Education plays a crucial role in the development of society, particularly in the developing world. The purpose of this research is to assess the impact of a laissez-faire leadership style on the academic performance of primary school students in selected schools within Kasese district. The study utilized a cross-sectional survey design, employing both quantitative and qualitative methodologies. Quantitative data was processed by coding and entering it into a computer program called the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 22.0). This data was then summarized using frequency tables, allowing for the identification of errors and necessary revisions. Among the respondents, 27 (45%) disagreed with the statement, indicating that teachers appreciate the leadership style that grants them freedom. This lack of accountability can have negative consequences. Conversely, 24 (40%) agreed that head teachers adopt a hands-off approach, empowering teachers to independently solve problems, while 60% disagreed with this statement. Additionally, 17 (28.3%) of head teachers spend the majority of their time outside the school, with their presence on campus being rather casual. This evidence suggests that head teachers do not perceive their presence as significant, failing to recognize its positive impact on academic performance. In Kasese District, the Primary Leaving Examination (PLE) results for 2018 and 2020 revealed a disappointing pass rate of only 47%. Therefore, it is crucial to examine various factors, such as the leadership styles of head teachers, in order to address this issue effectively. Keywords: laissez-faire leadership, academic performance, primaryschool, pupils, social studies.

Effects of Authentic Leadership, Behavioral Integrity, and Project Governance on Project Performance

While literature indicates that leadership plays an important role in project management and impacts project performance, it remains unclear what characterizes an effective leadership style in project management. Drawing on authentic leadership, behavioral integrity, and project governance research, and using cross-sectional data from multiple industries, we propose and test a leadership performance model to examine how authentic leaders and leaders with behavioral integrity affect their project team’s performance. We find that authenticity and behavioral integrity in a project manager enhance project performance, and that project governance mediates the relationships between leader authenticity and project performance, and between leader behavioral integrity and project performance.

Analisis Gaya Kepemimpinan Transformasional dan Pengaruhnya Terhadap Kinerja Aparat Desa Melalui Perilaku Inovatif sebagai Variabel Intervening di Kecamatan Sekernan Muaro Jambi

Research This study aims to examine the effect of transformational leadership on agency performance. The aim of this research is to explain and analyze the effect of transformational leadership style on the performance of village officials through innovative behavior in Sekernan Muaro Jambi District. The population of this research is the village government in 15 villages in Sekernan Muaro Jambi district. The sample size used was 105 respondents with a purposive sampling method. The analysis technique used is path analysis using the SmartPLS approach. The research results show that (1). Transformational leadership style has a positive and significant effect on innovative behavior (2). Innovative behavior has a positive and significant effect on the performance of village officials (3). Transformational leadership style has a positive and significant effect on the performance of village officials, and (4) Transformational leadership style has a positive and significant effect on the performance of village officials through innovative behavior as an intervening variable

Leadership style and employee performance in China’s fast moving consumer goods industry

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of various leadership styles on employee performance in the Fast-Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) industry in China. The unexpected global spread of the coronavirus pandemic and its complicated issues have created a substantial amount of uncertainty in consumer demand worldwide which has motivated this research and highlighted the crucial role that the FMCG industry's marketing relationship plays in determining enterprise profit. There is a growing concern among enterprise managers, academics and policymakers about employee performance and its overarching impact on the organization. The study is underpinned by social exchange theory and employs a cross-sectional design. An online survey was conducted with 384 employees from the FMCG industry to measure the impact of three independent variables: authentic leadership style, servant leadership style and ethical leadership style. The findings reveal that authentic, servant and ethical leadership all significantly affect employee performance in the Chinese FMCG industry. Among these, ethical leadership is found to have the extreme effect. The implications of this study are of practical relevance to FMCG companies. FMCG companies can potentially navigate through the uncertainty in global consumer demand more effectively by reconfiguring their leadership styles to enhance employee performance. The study provides insights that can be used by FMCG companies to increase employee performance which is directly linked to enterprise profit.

The Role of Intrinsic Motivation in Mediating the Influence of Situational Leadership Style on Performance

This study aims to analyze The Role of Intrinsic Motivation in Mediating The Effect of Situational Leadership Style on Employee Performance at PT. Artha Alam Lestari. This study used primary data by distributing 100 questionnaires as respondents. Data were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling analysis using AMOS 22 program. The results of the study showed that Situasional Leadership Style variable positive effected directly on Employee Performance, where Situasional Leadership Style that is applied will be able to improve Employee Performance. In addition, the Situational Leadership Style also positive effected indirectly on Employee Performance, which requires Intrinsic Motivation as an intervening variable to improve Employee Performance.

Effect of leadership styles on turnover intention among staff nurses in private hospitals: the moderating effect of perceived organizational support

Leadership styles have often been proven to support employees in performing their duties better and with more efficiency while enabling them to have extended organizational tenures. Staff nurses are an essential resource of hospitals to ensure proper administration and quality patient health care. The study aims to determine how transformational and authentic leadership styles affect the staff nurses’ turnover intention in private hospitals. In addition, it also finds the moderating effect of perceived organizational support. An explanatory quantitative research design with a cross-sectional investigation and a stratified sampling strategy was used for the study. Data from 296 nurses from the eight chosen private hospitals in the Kingdom of Bahrain were gathered using a questionnaire with 24 items. Smart-PLS was employed to conduct PLS-SEM (partial least squares structural equation modeling) to measure direct and indirect effects. The result indicates that transformational, authentic leadership styles and perceived organizational support significantly negatively affect nurses’ turnover intention. The study confirms the negative moderating effect of perceived organizational support between transformational leadership and turnover intention and the positive moderating effect of perceived organizational support between authentic leadership and turnover intention. Managers should concentrate on the leadership style to avoid its impact on turnover intention. By considering human resource practices such as communication and training strategies to cope with the negative effect of turnover intention, organizations can enhance employee engagement, improve job satisfaction, and foster a more stable and productive work environment. The present research revealed the adverse impact of turnover intention within hospitals by examining its association with leadership styles. The research made a significant contribution to the existing literature by delving into the impact of leadership styles on turnover intention, focusing on the moderating effect of perceived organizational support. The study’s findings shed light on the intricate relationship between leadership practices and employee turnover, providing valuable insights for both scholars and practitioners in the field. The study used a cross-sectional design to collect data and ensured the absence of standard method variance. The research enhanced the social dominance theory (SDT) by examining how perceived organizational support moderates the relationship between leadership styles and turnover intention.

THE INFLUENCE OF LEADERSHIP STYLE ON PERFORMANCE EMPLOYEES MEDIATED BY WORK MOTIVATION AND WORKING CULTURE IN TRANSPORTATION SERVICE DEPARTMENT OF YOGYAKARTA

This study aims to determine the effect of (1) Leadership Style on Employee Performance, (2) Leadership Style on Work Motivation, (3) Work Motivation on Employee Performance, (4) Leadership Style on Employee Performance mediated by Work Motivation, (5) Style Leadership on Work Culture, (6) Work Culture on Employee Performance and (7) Leadership Style on Employee Performance mediated by Work Culture. Sampling uses Slovin Formula resulted in 84 respondents from a total of 107 employees of Transportation Service Department Yogyakarta. Methods of data collection uses questionnaires. This research uses Data Quality Test and Hierarchical Regression Analysis. The study results show that Leadership Style plays a positive role on Employee Performance. Leadership Style plays a positive role on Work Motivation. Work Motivation plays a positive role on Employee Performance and is expressed as a Mediator variable on the effect of Leadership Style on Employee Performance. Leadership style has no effect on employee performance. Work Culture is declared not a mediator on the influence of Leadership Style on Employee Performance.

Influence of Family Leadership Style on Family Business Performance

Family businesses play a significant role in the global economy, yet leadership styles within families are often unique and complex. Performance in family business has been a focal point concerning the influence of family leadership style on family business performance. This research aims to analyze the influence of leadership style within the family context on family business performance. The study employs a quantitative method with a descriptive-verification approach to collect and analyze data. Quantitative data is obtained through surveys distributed to family members involved in the family business. The research focuses on family businesses owned by Entrepreneurship students at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia. These family businesses are selected to represent diversity in leadership styles and their business sizes. The results of this study indicate that family leadership style significantly influences family business performance. The findings provide valuable insights into how families can enhance their business performance through effective family leadership styles.

The Role of Physical and Non-Physical Programs in Enhancing Community Well-being Through the Leadership Style of Village Government

Community welfare is a key indicator of a nation's progress. To achieve sustainable welfare, a holistic approach involving various factors is necessary, including physical and non-physical programs implemented through effective leadership styles, encompassing sports, training, education, and skills development. This research aims to identify the influence of physical and non-physical programs on community welfare through the leadership style of village government in Pongo Village, Masamba District, North Luwu Regency. The research method used is explanatory research with data collection through questionnaires, which were validated and tested for reliability before distribution. The population and sample of this study are the residents of Pongo Village selected through purposive sampling, with 102 respondents chosen according to the Moe formula for sampling determination. The collected data are analyzed using the SmartPLS statistical tool. The results indicate a significant impact of physical and non-physical programs on leadership style and community welfare. Additionally, leadership style has a significant influence on community welfare. Both physical and non-physical programs also directly contribute significantly to community welfare. The research further reveals an indirect influence, where physical programs significantly affect community welfare through leadership style.

Effects of Different Leadership Styles on Cognitive Engagement in Online Collaborative Learning

The collaborative learning approach as a universal teaching strategy is widely used in online learning. It is proven that the group leader has an important impact on group collaborative knowledge construction in online collaborative learning (OCL). However, limited research is available on how leadership styles influence a group universal teaching strategy is widely used in online learning this study, the authors adopted lag sequential analysis, epistemic network analysis, and social network analysis to explore the influence of divergent and convergent leadership styles on cognitive engagement in OCL groups. Compared with convergent leadership, divergent leadership strengthened online collaborative cognitive engagement through significant organizer and manager roles, triggered high-quality cognitive behavior transformation within the group, and promoted the balanced development of learners' cognitive structure.