Effect Of Electrolyte Composition Research Articles

Effect of electrolyte composition and deposition voltage on the deposition rate of copper microcolumns jet electrodeposition

Jet electrodeposition (Jet ECD) is widely recognized for its potential to achieve high deposition rates and adequate field fixation. Currently, the rapid deposition of microscale copper structures remains a significant challenge. In this study, we address this challenge by employing a custom-made microcapillary glass nozzle and optimizing key plating parameters, including H2SO4, CuSO4, KCl concentration, and applied voltage. Through systematic experimentation, we successfully deposited well-formed copper microcolumns with a diameter of 70 μm at a deposition rate of 19.8 μm/s. We discovered that higher concentrations of H2SO4, greater voltage, and the addition of Cl- ions were effective in increasing the deposition speed. Furthermore, a higher concentration of CuSO4 led to improved surface morphology. Additionally, we conducted COMSOL simulations to investigate the influence of voltage and conductivity on the deposition speed. Our research results contribute to the understanding and optimization of rapid fabrication processes for copper microstructures through jet electrodeposition at the microscale.

Cathode Dry Operation of Anion Exchange Membrane Water Electrolysis

The scale of hydrogen production from renewable energy sources is expected to increase worldwide in the future. Water electrolysis is a practical way to produce hydrogen from renewable energy sources. Water electrolyzers that use an anion exchange membrane (AEM) are expected to be new devices for hydrogen (H2) production that achieve high performance at low capital cost.In AEM water electrolysis, “cathode dry operation” is sometimes applied. In this operation mode, water (electrolyte solution) is supplied only to the anode, not to the cathode where water is consumed in the reaction, keeping the cathode dry. In this way, relatively dry hydrogen can be extracted directly from the cathode, simplifying the hydrogen drying process. When water electrolyzers are installed in large quantities (over 1000 units), the cost of balance of plants (BOPs) is expected to account for the majority of system costs [1], and simplifying the BOPs are important for reducing system costs. However, it was observed that cathode dry operation would cause concentration overpotentials due to water diffusion through the membrane [2], which may limit the current density and membrane thickness to prevent cathode dry-out.In this study, the effects of electrolyte composition and concentration on the water behavior in the membrane during cathodic dry operation on the electrolysis performance were quantitatively investigated.AcknowledgementThis work was supported partly by the New Energy and Industrial Development Organization (NEDO) through the Advancement of Hydrogen Technologies and Utilization Project (P 14021). The authors wish to express their gratitude to Tokuyama Corporation for their support and helpful advice.

(Best Student Presentation) Is Solid-Electrolyte Interphase Formation Affected by Electrode Conductivity?

Accurate analysis of the mechanism of interphase formation and its composition is imperative for the development of stable and efficient lithium/sodium-ion batteries. One of the most practically scalable ways to optimize interphase chemistry and morphology for reversible charge transport is electrolyte engineering and the application of formation protocol with specific current/voltage conditions. In this sense, the analysis of structure and dynamics within the electrode/electrolyte interface, i.e., the so-called electric-double layer, is essential to predicting the possible chemistry and mechanism of interphase formation.The latest was recently advanced by understanding the effect of electrolyte chemistry, e.g., the chemical structure of solvent and salt, their ratio, the presence of additives etc.1–4 Although, the role of electrode material is often neglected which creates an impression that both metallic and semiconductive electrodes form an identical electric-double layer within the same electrolyte, therefore, the mechanism of interphase formation should be very similar regardless of the chemical nature of the electrode.Here, we used examples of sodium-salt-containing ionic liquids and carbonate electrolytes to demonstrate that structural changes at the electrified interface are greatly affected by the dielectric nature of electrode material. The key observation is attributed to the different abilities of electrified electrodes to form van der Waals interactions with the electrolyte species. This affects the concentration of metal-anion complexes in relation to organic solvent near the electrode, therefore, different interphase chemistry will be formed (inorganic-rich vs. organic-rich), and different formation protocols must be used. For example, Fig. 1 shows the summary of this phenomenon for ionic liquid electrolytes with 50 mol% sodium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide. Besides, metallic and semiconductive electrodes demonstrated different affinity toward polar organic solvent, i.e., ethylene carbonate, in 1.0 M NaPF6 in EC:DMC (1:1 by volume) electrolyte. This presentation will discuss the details of these fundings and introduce future applications. Fig. 1 | Schematic relationships between solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) composition, applied current of preconditioning cycling, and dielectric nature of anode material.References Zheng, X. et al. Toward High Temperature Sodium Metal Batteries via Regulating the Electrolyte/Electrode Interfacial Chemistries. ACS Energy Lett. 7, 2032–2042 (2022).Rakov, D. A. et al. Engineering high-energy-density sodium battery anodes for improved cycling with superconcentrated ionic-liquid electrolytes. Nat. Mater. 19, 1096–1101 (2020).Rakov, D. A. et al. Polar Organic Cations at Electrified Metal with Superconcentrated Ionic Liquid Electrolyte and Implications for Sodium Metal Batteries. ACS Mater. Lett. 4, 1984–1990 (2022).Rakov, D. et al. Stable and Efficient Lithium Metal Anode Cycling through Understanding the Effects of Electrolyte Composition and Electrode Preconditioning. Chem. Mater. (2021). doi:10.1021/acs.chemmater.1c02981 Figure 1

Surface enlargement of tantalum capacitor foils by pulsed direct current etching and laser cladding

Electrochemical etching for the surface enlargement of tantalum capacitor foils has always been a challenge, due to the ultra-high chemical stability of tantalum foils. Herein, pulsed direct current etching of tantalum capacitor foils assisted by laser cladding was investigated and high surface area enlargement was achieved. The effects of electrolyte composition, power supply parameters and external environment on the etching process of tantalum foil were systematically studied, to screen out the best experimental conditions. Furthermore, iron particles with diameters of 3–5 μm were successfully laser cladded on the surface of tantalum foils. These particles will be easily etched in the electrochemical process to form more previous pores, which can serve as etching sites for further tantalum foil etching. Under the best conditions, high-specific capacitance tantalum foils with a capacitance of 155.1 nF/mm2 were obtained at a high forming voltage of 100 V, which were 8 times larger than the unetched light foils. The surface enlargement of tantalum capacitor foils is expected to realize the development of novel tantalum capacitors with both high operating voltage and high capacitance.

Effect of Electrolyte Composition on Plasma Electrolytic Polishing of Titanium Alloys

Effect of Electrolyte Composition on Plasma Electrolytic Polishing of Titanium Alloys

Effect of electrolyte composition on the surface characteristics of plasma electrolytic oxidation coatings over Ti[sbnd]40Nb alloy

The present work aims to develop corrosion-resistant and cytocompatible coatings on Ti40Nb alloy by the plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) process. Usually, PEO coatings on niobium substrate with superior surface characteristics are obtained using a silicate-based electrolyte system, and a phosphate-based electrolyte system is used for titanium substrate. Till date, electrolyte system composition is not optimised for the PEO coatings on Ti40Nb alloys. To study the influence of electrolyte composition on PEO coating properties over Ti40Nb alloy, three different concentrations of phosphate and silicate (75:25, 50:50, and 25:75) and a fixed amount of KOH were used, and their surface characteristics and corrosion properties were evaluated in this study. We found that coatings formed with an equal proportion of phosphate and silicate in an electrolyte system are dense, compact, thick and corrosion-resistant. A coating aimed for high bioactivity is also developed by adding hydroxyapatite (HA) nanoparticles to an equal proportion (50:50) electrolyte system. After the successful development of the PEO coatings over Ti40Nb alloy, its phase composition, surface morphological features, wettability, scratch resistance, and corrosion properties are examined. The cell viability and live/dead cell morphology of L-929 fibroblast cells were evaluated for untreated Ti40Nb alloy, PEO-treated Ti40Nb alloy, and Ti40Nb alloy PEO-treated with hydroxyapatite nanoparticles. All surface-modified samples exhibited better corrosion resistance than the untreated alloy. Ti40Nb alloy PEO treated with phosphate: silicate electrolyte system (50:50) exhibited better scratch resistance, higher wettability, bioactivity, favourable chemical composition, and surface morphological features than the other ratios of phosphate and silicate (25:75 and 75:25). Meanwhile, Ti40Nb alloy PEO treated with hydroxyapatite nanoparticles addition showed better cytocompatibility than without HA addition.

One-Step Electrochemical Synthesis and Surface Reconstruction of NiCoP as an Electrocatalyst for Bifunctional Water Splitting.

We adopted a simple one-step electrochemical deposition to acquire an efficient nickel cobalt phosphorus (NiCoP) catalyst, which avoided the high temperature phosphatization engineering involved in the traditional synthesis method. The effects of electrolyte composition and deposition time on electrocatalytic performance were studied systematically. The as-prepared NiCoP achieved the lowest overpotential (η10 = 111 mV in the acidic condition and η10 = 120 mV in the alkaline condition) for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Under 1 M KOH conditions, optimal oxygen evolution reaction (OER) activity (η10 = 276 mV) was also observed. Furthermore, the bifunctional NiCoP catalyst enabled a high-efficiency overall water-splitting by applying an external potential of 1.69 V. The surface valence and structural evolution of NiCoP samples with slowly decaying stability under alkaline conditions are revealed by XPS. The NiCoP is reconstructed into the Ni(Co)(OH)2 (for HER) and Ni(Co)OOH (for OER) on the surface with P element loss, acting as real "active sites".

Effect of electrolyte composition on corrosion behavior and tribological performance of plasma electrolytic oxidized TC4 alloy

Four kinds of typical plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) coatings were prepared on TC4 alloy to investigate the influence of electrolyte composition on the corrosion behavior and tribological performance of the PEO coatings. The results show that both the corrosion behavior and tribological performance of the PEO coatings are highly dependent on the electrolyte composition. The PEO coating fabricated from the electrolyte containing NaH2PO2 exhibits the best corrosion resistance owing to its denser inner layer. The PEO coating prepared from the electrolyte containing NaAlO2 reveals the best tribological performance due to the generation of Al2O3. To prepare a PEO coating with satisfying corrosion resistance and wear resistance, a composite PEO coating was fabricated from the electrolyte containing NaH2PO2 and NaAlO2.

Insight into poly(1,3-dioxolane)-based polymer electrolytes and their interfaces with lithium Metal: Effect of electrolyte compositions

The transport properties and electrochemical stability of advanced lithiummetal batteries are severely constrained by the actual electrolyte compositions. Herein, for comprehensive atomistic insights and the development of electrolyte scientific theory, molecular dynamics technology is employed to investigate the electrochemical properties of recently attractive poly(1,3-dioxolane)-based electrolytes and their interfaces with lithium metal. This work elaborates on the characteristics of Li+ solvation environments and the effects of polymer chain length or plasticizer content on the experiment-concerned properties of bulk electrolytes, including solvation sheath structures, ionic diffusions, conductivities, transport numbers, etc. Meanwhile, to clarify the influence of polymer or salt concentration on the electrolyte/lithium metal interface, three distinctive interface models were proposed and analyzed based on different electrolyte compositions in this work: liquid-based, polymer-based, and highly-concentrated systems. Compared with the unfavorable liquid interface layer in the liquid-based system, the latter two systems have more electrochemically stable interfacial construction due to the appearance of polymer on the lithium metal surface. Besides, the Li+ solvation structure, which is related to the lithium electrodeposition, exhibits orientation, e.g., small organic liquid molecules in the liquid-based system are more likely to appear on the side that is accessible to the lithium metal surface. These small molecules are essentially excluded from the Li+ solvation structures in the polymer-based electrolyte, which is another important factor for stabilizing the interface. Furthermore, compared with the bulk electrolytes, it is found that ionic conductions at the interfaces are not attenuated in all systems. This work presents a comprehensive, profound view from bulk to interfacial properties, thus providing a theoretical cornerstone for the composition design and performance optimization of polymer electrolytes for lithium metal batteries.

In-situ synthesized MgO-based ceramic coatings on a novel Mg–Ca material: Morphological response to the PEO electrolyte

MgO-based ceramic layers were in-situ synthesized on a novel Mg-based substrate via plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO). The effects of electrolyte composition on the morphology of the layers were investigated through preparing three different ion arrangements, including common silicate-based and phosphate-based electrolytes as well as a modified Ca-containing phosphate-based electrolyte. Characterization methods including scanning electron microscopy and EDS elemental analysis were used to investigate the morphological features of the coatings, at the surfaces and cross-sections. Results indicated that the silicate-based electrolyte yields morphologically inhomogeneous coating with small porosities, while using the phosphate-based electrolytes may result in improved thickness and modified porosities. However, both of the coatings prepared via common electrolytes present Ca-containing heterogeneities, called nuggets. Using the modified phosphate-based electrolyte, it was indicated that the addition of Ca2+ ions not only removes any elemental/morphological heterogeneities in the PEO coating but also provides a ceramic layer with homogenous thickness distribution. However, it was confirmed that the PEO conditions should be changed to obtain the optimum morphological characteristics in coatings synthesized via Ca-contained electrolyte.

A Comprehensive Study of the Electrochemical Oxidation of Diclofenac Sodium in Reverse-Osmosis Concentrate: Analysis, Reaction Kinetics, and the Effect of Electrolyte Composition

A Comprehensive Study of the Electrochemical Oxidation of Diclofenac Sodium in Reverse-Osmosis Concentrate: Analysis, Reaction Kinetics, and the Effect of Electrolyte Composition

A Bistable Variable Infrared Emissivity Device Based on Reversible Silver Electrodeposition

AbstractReversible silver electrodeposition (RSE) can dynamically modulate visible light and infrared radiation through the reversible electrodeposition and dissolution of silver layer. However, the RSE device with bistability better than 2 h has not been reported, because the deposited silver layer may dissolve automatically without driving voltage. Here, a variable infrared emissivity device based on RSE with 24 h excellent bistability is demonstrated. A silver layer fixed at the counter electrode is used as the charge mediator, which reforms the electrochemical reactions of the counter electrode and is the key for obtaining bistability. Effects of electrolyte composition and driving voltage on the bistability are studied, and the driving voltage affects the bistability of RSE devices. This RSE device can be enlarged to 5 × 5 cm2 with uniform emissivity change of 0.48 in 2.5–25 µm using silicon wafer as the infrared transparent working electrode substrate, and display discontinuous thermal patterns through incorporating a dielectric pattern layer. The cyclability and device failure mechanism is analyzed. With the excellent bistability, the proposed RSE devices provide great application prospects in the fields of dynamic infrared information display, adaptive infrared camouflage, and smart thermal management.

Origin of Enhanced Performance in Nanoporous Electrical Double Layer Capacitors: Insights on Micropore Structure and Electrolyte Composition from Molecular Simulations.

We explore the effect of solvation and micropore structure on the energy storage performance of electrical double layer capacitors using constant potential molecular dynamics simulations of realistically modeled nanoporous carbon electrodes and ionic liquid/organic solvent mixtures. We show that the time-dependent charging profiles of electrodes with larger pores reach the plateau regime faster, while the charging time has a nonmonotonic dependence on ion concentration, mirroring the composition dependence of bulk electrolyte conductivity. When the average pore size of the electrode is similar to or slightly larger than the size of a solvated ion, the solvation enhances ion electrosorption into nanopores by disrupting anion-cation coordination and decreasing the barrier to counterion penetration while blocking the co-ions. In these systems, areal capacitance exhibits a significant nonmonotonic dependence on ion concentration, in which capacitance increases with the introduction of solvent in the concentrated regime followed by a decrease with further dilution. This gives rise to a maximum in capacitance at intermediate dilution levels. When pores are significantly larger than solvated ions, capacitance maximum weakens and eventually disappears. These findings provide novel insights on the combined effect of electrolyte composition and electrode pore size on the charging kinetics and equilibrium behavior of realistically modeled electrical double layer capacitors. Generalization of the approach developed here can facilitate the rational optimization of material properties for electrical double layer capacitor applications.

Effect of electrolyte composition on electrochemical oxidation: Active sulfate formation, benzotriazole degradation, and chlorinated by-products distribution

Electrochemical oxidation is an effective technique for treating persistent organic pollutants, which are hardly removed in conventional wastewater treatment plants. Sulfate and chloride salts commonly used and present in natural wastewater influence the electrochemical degradation process. In this study, the effect of electrolyte composition on the active sulfate species (SO4●⁻ and S2O82⁻) formation, benzotriazole degradation-a model organic compound, and chlorinated by-products distribution have been investigated while using a boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode. Different Na2SO4:NaNO3 and Na2SO4:NaCl ratios with constant conductivity of 10 mS/cm were used in the experiments and applied anode potential was kept constant at 4.3 V vs. Ag/AgCl. The electrogenerated SO4●⁻ and S2O82⁻ formation were faster in 10:1 and 2:1 Na2SO4:NaNO3 ratios than in the 1:0 ratio. The ●OH-mediated SO4●⁻ production has prevailed in 10:1 and 2:1 ratios. However, ●OH-mediated SO4●⁻ production has hindered the 1:0 ratio due to excess chemisorption of SO42⁻ on the BDD anode. Similarly, the faster benzotriazole degradation, mineralization, and lowest energy consumption were achieved in the 10:1 Na2SO4:NaNO3 and Na2SO4:NaCl ratio. Besides, chlorinated organic by-product concentration (AOX) was lower in the 10:1 Na2SO4:NaCl ratio but increased with the increasing chloride ratio in the electrolyte. LC-MS analysis shows that several chlorinated organic transformation products were produced in 0:1 to 2:1 ratio, which was not found in the 10:1 Na2SO4:NaCl ratio. A comparatively higher amount of ClO4⁻ was formed in the 10:1 ratio than in 2:1 to 0:1 ratio. This ClO4⁻ formation train evidence the effective ●OH generation in a sulfate-enriched condition because the ClO4⁻ formation is positively correlated to ●OH concentration. Overall results show that sulfate-enriched electrolyte compositions are beneficial for electrochemical oxidation of biorecalcitrant organic pollutants.

Controlled synthesis of tungsten trioxide with globular clusters constructed of nanoplates by rapid breakdown anodization

Herein, electrochemical synthesis of tungsten trioxide (WO3) with globular clusters constructed of nanoplates is demonstrated. Under a breakdown anodization potential of 25 V at 50 °C, tungsten foil anode was efficiently electro-oxidized into WO3 nanoplates-aggragated globular clusters powder, rather than a thin film structure as conventional anodization occurs. The WO3 globular clusters were characterized by SEM, TEM, and XRD. Effects of electrolyte composition on the breakdown anodization of the W substrate has been discussed. It is suggested that the growth of the WO3 nanoplates is initiated by localized anodic dielectric breakdown, and followed by an effective crystal growth in the electrolyte at high breakdown field.

Effects of electrolyte composition on the growth and properties of titanium oxide nanotubes

Titanium oxide nanotubes prepared by anodization are widely used in many fields due to their excellent properties, but the formation mechanism is still under discussion. This paper focuses on the formation of TiO2 nanotubes in different electrolytes. We explored the influence of electrolyte components on anodization process and results through analysing the current–time curves and SEM images. The results showed that the addition of ionizable sodium salt to the electrolyte increased the conductivity of electrolytes, and then promoted the growth of nanotubes with improving the properties. In this paper, we explained the interesting experimental results by the oxygen bubble model theory and double current(ionic current and electronic current) theory.

Stable and Efficient Lithium Metal Anode Cycling through Understanding the Effects of Electrolyte Composition and Electrode Preconditioning

Stable metal anode cycling for high energy density batteries can be realized through modification of electrolyte composition and optimization of formation protocols, i.e., electrode interphase preconditioning conditions. However, the relationship between these and the electrochemical performance is still unclear due to a lack of molecular level understanding of electric double layer (EDL) changes with modification of these two parameters. Herein, we examine the impact of ionic liquid (IL) electrolyte composition (salt concentration and cosolvent) and preconditioning cycling conditions on Li anode performance through EDL changes affecting both the solid–electrolyte interphase (SEI) and deposition morphology. Each electrolyte composition results in a particular interfacial Li-ion solvation environment, which controls the reductive stability, Li deposition potential, and ultimately the composition of properties of the SEI. The latter is dependent on the EDL composition such as the IL cation/Li-anion ratio or the presence of other surface active additives. It is found that in a superconcentrated electrolyte, a high current density (≥10.0 mA cm–2/1.0 mAh cm–2) is beneficial during the metal anode preconditioning step, compared with the case of low Li salt-containing IL. This correlates with a predominance of Lix(anion)y (x > y) at a highly negatively charged interface, which is present when higher current densities are used for preconditioning, as suggested by molecular dynamics simulations. In contrast, for the lower viscosity superconcentrated electrolyte containing 20 wt % of ether cosolvent, a more moderate preconditioning step current density (6.0 mA cm–2/1.0 mAh cm–2) leads to an optimized deposition morphology and improved cycling performance. This is a consequence of the competing processes of ion transport at the interface, which controls the Li+ ion flux and the intrinsic reduction kinetics occurring at the more negative electrode.

Toward real applicability of electro-ozonizers: Paying attention to the gas phase using actual commercial PEM electrolyzers technology

This work focuses on increasing the TRL of electro-ozonizer technology by evaluating the effect of electrolyte composition and operation conditions on the production of ozone, using an actual commercial cell, CONDIAPURE®, in conditions similar to what could be expected in a real application. Not only is attention paid to the changes in the concentration of ozone in the liquid phase, but also to those observed in the gas phase. The electrolyte and its recirculation flowrate, as well as operation temperatures and pressures are found to have significant influence on production rates. The most efficient way to produce ozone is operating at low temperatures and high pressures. In this work, 0.25 and 0.21 mg O3/min were obtained operating at 10 A in electrolytes consisting of aqueous solutions of perchloric and sulfuric acid, respectively, in tests carried out at 13 °C and 2 bars of gauge pressure. The negative effect of scavengers that appear electrochemically along the production of ozone is very important and seems to be partially compensated when organics are present in the solution due to the competition between the reaction of these scavengers with ozone or organics.

Effects of Electrolyte Composition on the Supercapacitive Performance of Chemically Synthesized Bundles of Stacked Cu(OH)2 Nanosheets

AbstractThe electrochemical performance of an electrode in a supercapacitor primarily depends on the electrolyte composition. Herein, the effect of electrolyte composition on the electrode performance of copper hydroxide [Cu(OH)2] nanosheets thin film is investigated. Cu(OH)2 nanosheets thin film is synthesized by facile chemical bath deposition (CBD) method. The structural and morphological properties are investigated by X‐ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The pure phase Cu(OH)2 nanosheet thin film is effectively used as an electrode for supercapacitor. The electrochemical performance of Cu(OH)2 nanosheets thin film is investigated using various 1 M aqueous electrolytes such as KOH, NaOH, and Na2SO4. Among all other electrolytes, Cu(OH)2 nanosheets thin film shows the highest specific capacitance of 467 Fg–1 at a scan rate of 5 mV s–1 in 1 M KOH. Further, cyclic stability for 2000 cycles shows capacitance retention of 93%.

(Invited) Enabling Scalable CO/CO2 Reduction

Along with mitigation, the effective utilization of waste CO and CO2 from point sources in combination with renewable electrons has the potential to address climate challenges and change the manufacturing paradigm. Numerous funding offices and governments have set device level goals and reduction targets for CO2 emissions putting momentum behind and a focus on electrochemical CO/CO2 reduction. To enable this vision, the identification of limiting phenomena,[1,2] scalable integration and fabrication methods, and corresponding critical breakthroughs to improve stability (constant operation) and/or durability (dynamic operation), combined with selective as well as efficient operation are necessary.The implementation of gas diffusion electrodes over the last several years has enabled higher current densities and lower cell voltages for electrochemical CO/CO2 reduction.[3,4] Here, we pull from our experience in the fuel cell space and aim to serve as a node for the development of cell and electrode architectures that would help the community integrate novel materials (electrocatalysts, membranes, and ionomers), test devices as scales commensurate with the standards in the fuel cell and electrolysis community (>25 cm2), and subsequently characterize and model limiting phenomena. To this end, we will present limiting phenomena for CO2 to formate, CO2 to CO, and CO to various products, focusing on the effects of catholyte composition, ionomer binder chemistry, and the stability/durability of anode and cathode materials.[1] R. Kas, A.G. Star, K. Yang, T. Van Cleve, K.C. Neyerlin, W.A. Smith, Along the Channel Gradients Impact on the Spatioactivity of Gas Diffusion Electrodes at High Conversions during CO 2 Electroreduction, ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. 9 (2021) 1286–1296. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c07694.[2] S. Verma, X. Lu, S. Ma, R. I. Masel, P.J. A. Kenis, The effect of electrolyte composition on the electroreduction of CO 2 to CO on Ag based gas diffusion electrodes, Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 18 (2016) 7075–7084. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5CP05665A.[3] Y. Chen, A. Vise, W.E. Klein, F.C. Cetinbas, D.J. Myers, W.A. Smith, T.G. Deutsch, K.C. Neyerlin, A Robust, Scalable Platform for the Electrochemical Conversion of CO 2 to Formate: Identifying Pathways to Higher Energy Efficiencies, ACS Energy Letters. 5 (2020) 1825–1833. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.0c00860.[4] D. Higgins, C. Hahn, C. Xiang, T.F. Jaramillo, A.Z. Weber, Gas-Diffusion Electrodes for Carbon Dioxide Reduction: A New Paradigm, ACS Energy Letters. 4 (2019) 317–324. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.8b02035.