Effective Conservation Management Research Articles

Ecological analysis of higher aquatic and semi-aquatic plants of Lake Alakol

From an ecological perspective, the study of biological diversity is a key element for maintaining the sustainability of ecosystems and for developing and implementing effective conservation and natural resource management strategies. Lake Alakol, a slightly saline, endorheic lake in Kazakhstan, is a unique natural object with rich biodiversity. According to research results, diversity indices such as Simpson (0.99), Shannon (3.48), Margalef (0.78), have similar values, which indicates a sufficient variety of macrophytes. Four ecological groups were identified, with a significant number being hygrophytes (Hg) - 30 species and hygromesophytes (HgM) - 26 species. The hydrophytic index of Lake Alakol was 0.7, which indicates the sustainability of the aquatic flora and a high proportion of true aquatic plants. Among the life forms, perennials (75 species) and annuals (16 species) predominate, which is explained by the morphological and anatomical characteristics of aquatic plants and determines their adaptation to the aquatic environment. Thus, ecological study of macrophytes of Lake Alakol can offer important data for devising successful management and conservation strategies for water basins and their surrounding environment.

Spiny dogfish, Squalus suckleyi, shows a good tolerance for hypoxia but need long recovery times.

Pacific spiny dogfish, Squalus suckleyi, move to shallow coastal waters during critical reproductive life stages and are thus at risk of encountering hypoxic events which occur more frequently in these areas. For effective conservation management, we need to fully understand the consequences of hypoxia on marine key species such as elasmobranchs. Because of their benthic life style, we hypothesized that S. suckleyi are hypoxia tolerant and able to efficiently regulate oxygen consumption, and that anaerobic metabolism is supported by a broad range of metabolites including ketones, fatty acids and amino acids. Therefore, we studied oxygen consumption rates, ventilation frequency and amplitude, blood gasses, acid-base regulation, and changes in plasma and tissue metabolites during progressive hypoxia. Our results show that critical oxygen levels (P crit) where oxyregulation is lost were indeed low (18.1% air saturation or 28.5Torr at 13°C). However, many dogfish behaved as oxyconformers rather than oxyregulators. Arterial blood PO2 levels mostly decreased linearly with decreasing environmental PO2. Blood gases and acid-base status were dependent on open versus closed respirometry but in both set-ups ventilation frequency increased. Hypoxia below Pcrit resulted in an up-regulation of anaerobic glycolysis, as evidenced by increased lactate levels in all tissues except brain. Elasmobranchs typically rely on ketone bodies as oxidative substrates, and decreased concentrations of acetoacetate and β-hydroxybutyrate were observed in white muscle of hypoxic and/or recovering fish. Furthermore, reductions in isoleucine, glutamate, glutamine and other amino acids were observed. After 6hours of normoxic recovery, changes persisted and only lactate returned to normal in most tissues. This emphasizes the importance of using suitable bioindicators adjusted to preferred metabolic pathways of the target species in conservation physiology. We conclude that Pacific spiny dogfish can tolerate severe transient hypoxic events, but recovery is slow and negative impacts can be expected when hypoxia persists.

Avifauna at Padang Chong Forest Reserve, Perak

Avifauna are widely visible and can be found in a variety of habitats, including primary forests up to the urban gardens. Surveys on avifauna using the mist-netting technique were carried out at Padang Chong Forest Reserve (PCFR) in Perak for five sessions starting from June 2022 until November 2022. From these, a total of 176 individuals from 49 species were recorded. The main objective of these surveys was to document and update the avifauna diversity at this forest reserve. Grey-throated Babbler (Stachyris nigriceps) was the most abundant with 27 individuals captured throughout the surveys followed by Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps indica) and Oriental-dwarf Kingfisher (Ceyx erithaca) with 14 individuals and 11 individuals captured respectively. From the surveys, it is shown that a diverse array of avifauna, with the remaining individuals representing a variety of species, each with fewer than 10 individuals recorded. Out of 49 species of avifauna, only Brown-chested Jungle-flycatcher (Cyornis brunneatus) is listed as Vulnerable, and the remaining species are listed as Near Threatened and Least Concern. These brings the checklist of avifauna in PCFR a total of 85 species from 19 families. Understanding the species richness of avifauna in Padang Chong Forest Reserve (PCFR) is crucial for effective conservation management strategies since this forest reserve is identified as one of the ecological corridors in Central Forest Spine (CFS) initiative known as A-PL2.

Identifying important habitat for northern bottlenose and Sowerby's beaked whales in the western North Atlantic

Abstract Understanding habitat requirements for species at risk is crucial for effective conservation management, even though the location and extent of vital habitats may be unknown for rare or elusive species. In the case of marine species, determining important habitat often relies on limited occurrence data or extrapolation from species distribution models (SDMs). SDMs predict habitat by associating species records with environmental variables, assuming a functional ecological relationship. This study focuses on northern bottlenose whales (NBW; Hyperoodon ampullatus) and Sowerby's beaked whales (SBW; Mesoplodon bidens) in the western North Atlantic. As both NBW and SBW are at risk in Canada, the objective was to identify the extent and function of important habitats to guide conservation efforts. The analysis mapped all available geographic occurrence data and used passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) data to inform the development of ensemble SDMs to predict potential habitat and assess the persistence of realized habitat use. Important habitats for NBW and SBW were found primarily concentrated along the continental shelf edges, at an average depth of 1200 m ± 460 SD. All habitat areas support foraging and movement and critical life history functions for both species. The Gully and other submarine canyons off eastern Nova Scotia emerged as important areas for both species, validating the existing Critical Habitat for NBW. However, spatial–temporal patterns diverged on either side of this region. North‐eastern Newfoundland was identified as the next closest area of near‐year‐round presence for NBW, whereas the south‐western Scotian Shelf region, Georges Bank and the Fundian Channel supported persistent foraging by SBW. By integrating multiple data sources (sightings, acoustic detections and SDMs) and demonstrating the temporal persistence of habitat use by NBW and SBW, this study provides valuable insights for identifying, protecting and managing important habitat for beaked whales.

Conservation Genetics of the Loggerhead Sea Turtle, Caretta caretta, from the Central Mediterranean: An Insight into the Species' Reproductive Behaviour in Maltese Waters.

Loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758), nestlings were investigated through specimens found dead either after hatching or unhatched (n = 120) from eight nests around the Maltese islands (Central Mediterranean). Molecular genetics was used to conduct maternity and paternity tests of the collected specimens utilizing expanded mitochondrial DNA sequences from the control region (858 bp) and 25 microsatellite loci (12 dinucleotide loci and 13 tetranucleotide loci). Mitochondrial data produced two haplotypes, CC-A2.1 and CC-A3.1, with the most common haplotype being present in seven nests. Microsatellite data revealed the identity of six different females that were involved in the deposition of the eggs in the eight turtle nests analysed. This confirms that two females laid multiple nests. Additionally, microsatellite data allowed for the determination of multiple paternity, with one clutch being sired by two fathers. These results are useful for monitoring the genetic diversity of loggerhead sea turtle nestlings and of the turtle mothers and fathers contributing to future turtle offspring, which rely on Maltese sandy beaches for their successful start to life. Effective conservation management benefits from merging scientific knowledge with effective measures at potential nesting sites to avoid losses of nestlings caused by human negligence.

Genomic data reveal strong differentiation and reduced genetic diversity in island golden eagle populations

Abstract Understanding population structure and the extent and distribution of genetic diversity are recognized as central issues in endangered species research, with broad implications for effective conservation management. Advances in whole genome sequencing techniques provide greater resolution of genome-wide genetic diversity and inbreeding. Subspecies of golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) in Scotland (A. c. chrysaetos) and Japan (A. c. japonica) are endangered; it is therefore important to understand genetic diversity and inbreeding of these small island populations to increase the chances of conservation success. We investigated this using whole genome sequencing data from golden eagles in Scotland, continental Europe, Japan, and the USA. Following determination of population genetic structure, analysis of heterozygosity and nucleotide diversity revealed reduced levels of genetic diversity together with runs of homozygosity, suggesting evidence of inbreeding attributable to recent shared parental ancestry in the island populations. These results highlight the need to consider genetic reinforcement of small isolated golden eagle populations from neighbouring outbred populations, alongside existing efforts to boost population size through within-island conservation translocations and captive breeding programmes.

Estimating abundance of a small population of Bryde's whales: a comparison between aerial surveys and boat‐based platforms of opportunity

AbstractAccurate abundance estimates are essential for the development of effective conservation management strategies, yet they are difficult to produce for small populations that are elusive and sparsely distributed throughout their range. For such populations it is challenging to collect a representative dataset sufficient for robust estimation of detectability and abundance. Over a one‐year study, we used two methods to estimate abundance of a Nationally Critical, widely dispersed Bryde's whale population in the Hauraki Gulf, Aotearoa/New Zealand; (i) distance sampling from systematic line‐transect aerial surveys (n = 22 surveys, 9,944 km, total sightings 21–24 whales), and (ii) mark‐recapture (MR) using photo‐identification images collected from a platform‐of‐opportunity and small‐boat surveys (218 sampling occasions, 27 whales). From the aerial surveys, we estimated an average of 15 whales (95% CI = 6, 30; CV = 37%) at the sea‐surface at any time. For the boat‐based surveys, we developed a custom MR model to address seasonal and individual heterogeneity in capture probabilities and obtained an estimate of 72 distinct whales (95% CI = 38, 106; CV = 24%) in the population. These two approaches provide different perspectives on the abundance and dynamics of Bryde's whales. The aerial surveys estimate the average number of individuals present at any one time, whereas the MR model estimates the total number of animals that used the Gulf during the study. Although neither sampling method is optimal for estimating the abundance of this small, dispersed population, the use of two complementary approaches informs conservation managers about patterns of abundance and distribution over different temporal and spatial scales. It is common to have limited resources for marine research where model assumptions cannot be met. Here, we highlight pragmatic strategies showing how models can be customized to the population of interest to assist with monitoring species of conservation concern.

Prototype of Forest and Land Fire Monitoring and Detection System Using IoT-Based WSN Technology

Forest and land fires are a recurrent issue in several Indonesian regions, necessitating advanced technological solutions for early detection and monitoring due to their significant impact. This research project focuses on developing a prototype system utilizing IoT-based Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) technology to detect forest and land fires. The prototype offers real-time remote monitoring of temperature, humidity, smoke levels, and wind speed in the forest through an Android app or web interface. To validate its performance, the prototype was compared to existing BMKG tools, with results showing minor temperature errors (2.41%) and a humidity error of 17.68%. The anemometer sensor exhibited a slight 4-second data transmission delay. Importantly, the prototype excelled in fire detection, effectively identifying temperature and humidity changes within a 2-meter radius or more indicative of fire outbreaks. This pioneering prototype promises to significantly enhance early warning and response mechanisms for forest and land fires in Indonesia, contributing to more effective environmental conservation and disaster management.

Don't take my trees: Re‐evaluating the importance of trees when it comes to managing green and golden bell frog, Litoria aurea, habitat

AbstractIt is vital to identify habitats used by each life stage of a species to formulate effective conservation management and restoration guidelines. For the threatened green and golden bell frog, Litoria aurea, it is currently recommended that, to prevent waterbody shading, managed or constructed habitat for the species should not include trees. Shading has been reported to prevent adults from sun basking, reduce breeding activity, and lower water temperatures, which may impede tadpole growth and development and provide optimum conditions for the amphibian chytrid pathogen, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. However, the complete exclusion of trees, which are naturally present in L. aurea habitat, warrants evidence that supports this recommendation. In the present study, we used a multi‐year dataset on an L. aurea population on Kooragang Island, NSW, Australia to determine the occurrence of tree use by post‐metamorphic individuals. These data included information on nearly 12 500 individuals captured from 86 waterbodies across 8 consecutive breeding seasons. We found that tree use by juveniles, adult males, and adult females was widespread and common, occurring both during the day and night, with more than one out of every 20 individuals captured in trees. Our findings suggest that trees are a potentially important attribute of the terrestrial component of wetland habitats occupied by L. aurea. We hypothesize that trees may (i) create microhabitat for foraging and/or increased diversity of prey species, (ii) provide refuge from predators, and (iii) allow sun basking off the ground, thereby offering protection against the chytrid fungus while removing them from chytrid‐prevalent environments such as water and moist soils. We call for the careful reconsideration of tree exclusion within L. aurea habitat and further research into the benefits of allowing trees to grow near waterbodies to accommodate the ecological needs of this threatened species.

Spatial drivers of ecosystem services supply-demand balances in the Nanjing metropolitan area, China

Ecosystem services (ESs) are the foundation of human well-being. Previous studies have paid limited attention to the interactions among several factors that influence the balance of ESs supply and demand at the grid scale. This study focused on four ESs–water yield (WY), grain yield (GY), carbon storage (CS), and recreational services (RS)–and examined their supply and demand in the Nanjing Metropolitan Area (NMA) in 2000, 2010, and 2020 at the pixel level. Our primary objective was to pinpoint regions characterised by imbalances in ESs supply and demand. In addition, we aimed to explore the interactions among the key elements that contribute to these imbalances. The Geodetector model (GD) was employed to elucidate the 14 distinct primary driving factors influencing the ESs supply-demand balance and their interactions. Our results showed that imbalances in WY and CS supply-demand were predominantly identified in the northern and southern regions of the Yangtze River Basin and certain urban centres. Imbalances in GY were occasionally found in the peripheral areas of cities. The spatial patterns of RS supply-demand imbalances resembled population patterns. The interaction between annual runoff depth and the proportion of built-up land (PB) had the highest explanatory power for changes in the WY supply-demand balance at 54%. The interaction between population density (POP) and the proportion of cultivated land (PC) had the highest explanatory power for the GY supply-demand balance at 29%. The interaction between the proportion of forest land (PF) and average annual ground temperature had the highest explanatory power for the CS supply-demand balance at 67%. The combined effect of PB and Net primary productivity had the highest explanatory power for the RS supply-demand balance at 41%. Overall, this study demonstrated the spatial heterogeneity of ESs at a finer scale than at the county level. This is important for the effective conservation and sound management of ESs. These findings provide decision-makers with insights into regulating regional ecosystem factors and improving local ecological environments based on local conditions.

Spatially explicit estimation of freshwater fish stock biomass with limited data: A case study of an endangered endemic fish on the Tibetan Plateau, China

Accurate evaluation of fish stock biomass is essential for effective conservation management and targeted species enhancement efforts. However, this remains challenging owing to limited data availability. Therefore, we present an integrated modeling framework combining catch per unit effort with ensemble species distribution modeling called CPUESDM, which explicitly assesses and validates the spatial distribution of stock biomass for freshwater fish species with limited data, applied to Herzensteinia microcephalus. The core algorithm incorporates the Leslie regression model, ensemble species distribution modeling, and exploratory spatial interpolation techniques. We found that H. microcephalus biomass in the Yangtze River source area yielded an initial estimate of 113.52 tons. Our validation results demonstrate high accuracy with a Cohen's kappa coefficient of 0.78 and root mean square error of 0.05. Furthermore, our spatially-explicit, global, absolute biomass density map effectively identified areas with high and low concentrations of biomass distribution centers. Additionally, this study offers access to the source code, example raw data, and a step-by-step instruction manual for other researchers using field data to explore the application of this model. Our findings can help inform for future conservation efforts around fish stock biomass estimation, especially for endangered species.

Monitoring within-patch, flying season population dynamics of an endangered mire-dwelling dragonfly, Petalura gigantea (Odonata: Petaluridae)

ABSTRACT Understanding within-patch seasonal demographics of patchily distributed odonates is fundamental to understanding aspects of their behaviour, ecology, and landscape-scale population dynamics. Such knowledge underpins effective conservation management and is dependent upon appropriate survey methods. The objective of this study was to understand the within-patch, flying season, population dynamics of imagos of the endangered mire-dwelling dragonfly, Petalura gigantea, using a modified Pollard Walk, a line transect survey technique. Relative abundance of imagos was monitored at nominally weekly intervals, by sex, across the duration of the flying season in six mire patches in the Blue Mountains, New South Wales. There was a preponderance of adult males and a relatively consistent trend in changing relative abundance of adult males compared to females within mire habitat across all surveys, with a marked seasonal peak in male abundance, confirming that surviving adult females generally occupy non-mire habitat other than for reproduction. This study confirmed the utility of this technique to monitor changing relative abundance of adult males within mire patches across a flying season, and potentially, for comparison among years for a separate, longitudinal, landscape-scale study. Successful use of the technique is contingent upon a sound understanding of the species’ habitat preferences and behaviour, with caveats for survey timing and weather protocols, to satisfy minimum requirements for detectability, repeatability, and replicability. The technique could be used, with species- and habitat-specific modifications, for monitoring other patchily distributed odonates, including petalurids, and contribute to their improved conservation management.

Distribution of sika deer (Cervus nippon) and the bioclimatic impact on their habitats in South Korea

Invasive species and climate change are primary factors influencing biodiversity, and examining the behavior of invasive species is essential for effective conservation management. Here, we report the global distribution of the sika deer (Cervus nippon) based on locations reported in published literature (Google Scholar), the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) database, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature report. We used the maximum entropy (Maxent) model to examine the impact of climate change on sika deer habitats in South Korea based on GBIF occurrence data and WorldClim bioclimatic variables. Habitat suitability analysis was performed using the Maxent model under Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 4.5 and 8.5 (for predicted climatic conditions in both 2050 and 2070) to project the effects of different climate change scenarios on South Korean sika deer habitats. We identified that the sika deer is distributed in 39 countries worldwide. Due to climate change effects, South Korean sika deer habitats will decline by approximately 24.98% and 20.63% (under RCP 4.5) and by 50.51% and 57.35% (under RCP 8.5) by 2050 and 2070, respectively. Our findings shed light on sika deer ecology and provide reference data for future conservation management strategies and policy design.

Introducing the Ecosystem and Socioeconomic Profile, a Proving Ground for Next Generation Stock Assessments

Ecosystem-based fishery science is an important component of effective marine conservation and resource management. Implementation has progressed through large-scale comprehensive ecosystem status reports; however, integrating ecosystem research within the stock assessment process remains elusive. Primary obstacles include the lack of a consistent approach to including ecosystem and socioeconomic information into a stock assessment model and how to test its reliability for identifying future change. We introduce a methodology and reporting framework termed the Ecosystem and Socioeconomic Profile (ESP) to overcome these obstacles. The ESP facilitates the integration of ecosystem and socioeconomic factors within the stock assessment process through four steps that culminate in a focused, succinct, and meaningful communication of drivers for a given stock. The first ESP was produced for Alaska sablefish and we provide the general process to implement the ESP framework using results from the sablefish ESP. We conducted a data synthesis that allowed for the framework to be applied across multiple regions and stocks. ESPs are an efficient testing ground for developing ecosystem-linked stock assessments and provide a set of reporting tools that can be tailored to a variety of audiences in order to effectively merge the ecosystem, socioeconomic, and stock assessment disciplines.

Conservation Genomics and Metagenomics of Giant and Red Pandas in the Wild.

Giant pandas and red pandas are endangered species with similar specialized bamboo diet and partial sympatric distribution in China. Over the last two decades, the rapid development of genomics and metagenomics research on these species has enriched our knowledge of their biology, ecology, physiology, genetics, and evolution, which is crucial and useful for their conservation. We describe the evolutionary history, endangerment processes, genetic diversity, and population structure of wild giant pandas and two species of red pandas (Chinese and Himalayan red pandas). In addition, we explore how genomics and metagenomics studies have provided insight into the convergent adaptation of pandas to the specialized bamboo diet. Finally, we discuss how these findings are applied to effective conservation management of giant and red pandas in the wild and in captivity to promote the long-term persistence of these species.

Public perception of an important urban estuary: Values, attitudes, and policy support in the Biscayne Bay-Miami Social Ecological System.

Understanding public perceptions, values, and preferences can be fundamental to effective conservation governance, management, and outreach. This is particularly true in socially and ecologically complex marine and coastal spaces, where many relevant questions remain. The social-ecological system of Biscayne Bay and Miami-Dade are on the frontier of problems that will soon engulf many coastal-urban systems. Despite the economic, ecological, and cultural importance of Biscayne Bay, research into the social components of this social-ecological system is distinctly lacking. In order to effectively address urgent coastal management issues, practitioners and policy-makers need a clear understanding of public perceptions, values, and priorities. In this paper I present the results of a large online survey (n = 1146) exploring public attitudes toward Biscayne Bay as a case study of management and opportunity in a complex coastal social-ecological system. Results describe a public that interacts with and utilizes Biscayne Bay in a variety of ways, from leisure and recreation, to subsistence. This public believes the Bay to be moderately healthy, though somewhat in decline, and has experienced a range of local environmental threats, about which they feel considerable concern. These interactions and concerns are in turn reflected in overwhelming endorsement of value statements regarding the ecological, material, cultural and economic importance of the ecosystem to the city, as well as high levels of support for policy actions to protect and restore that ecosystem. Together these findings indicate that additional policy steps to preserve and restore Biscayne Bay would enjoy support from the local public and demonstrate the power of public perceptions research to identify gaps and opportunities for management and outreach.

First estimates of population size and home range of Caribbean reef and nurse sharks using photo-identification and BRUVS

The assessment of parameters population size and individual home range is important for effective conservation management of sharks. This study uses the novel application of photo identification (photo-ID) to BRUVS footage as a non-invasive alternative to tagging in order to generate individual capture histories. These were used in mark-recapture models to estimate effective population sizes and to determine home ranges. In the Cayman Islands a total of 499 shark sightings of six coastal shark species were recorded on BRUVS from 2015 - 2018, but re-sighting rates were only sufficient for the determination of population parameters for two species - Caribbean reef shark (Carcharhinus perezi) and nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum). The calculated super-population sizes for Caribbean reef shark (180 ± 37 SE) and nurse shark (336 ± 61 SE) were greater than the estimates for each species based on a closed-population model (Caribbean reef shark: 128 ± 40 SE, nurse shark: 249 ± 48 SE), though both measures indicated that there were about twice as many nurse sharks (1.3 - 1.8 sharks/km2) as Caribbean reef sharks (0.7 – 1 shark/km2) within the study area. The demographic compositions included numerous immature individuals, indicating that breeding of both species takes place within the study area of 188 km2. Most recognizable individuals of both species showed linear home ranges of <20 km, but a few individuals were observed to have moved longer distances (Caribbean reef shark: 125.37 km, nurse shark: 156.07 km). The data indicate that the home ranges and long-distance movements of individual sharks observed within the islands’ marine protected areas (MPAs) often extend to areas beyond the MPA’s boundary, potentially exposing them to fishing activities. This study provides the first estimates of population size for Caribbean reef and nurse sharks in the Cayman Islands and the first estimate of a Caribbean reef shark population globally.

A fast and accurate identification model for Rhinolophus bats based on fine-grained information

Bats are a crucial component within ecosystems, providing valuable ecosystem services such as pollination and pest control. In practical conservation efforts, the classification and identification of bats are essential in order to develop effective conservation management programs for bats and their habitats. Traditionally, the identification of bats has been a manual and time-consuming process. With the development of artificial intelligence technology, the accuracy and speed of identification work of such fine-grained images as bats identification can be greatly improved. Bats identification relies on the fine features of their beaks and faces, so mining the fine-grained information in images is crucial to improve the accuracy of bats identification. This paper presents a deep learning-based model designed for the rapid and precise identification of common horseshoe bats (Chiroptera: Rhinolophidae: Rhinolophus) from Southern China. The model was developed by utilizing a comprehensive dataset of 883 high-resolution images of seven distinct Rhinolophus species which were collected during surveys conducted between 2010 and 2022. An improved EfficientNet model with an attention mechanism module is architected to mine the fine-grained appearance of these Rhinolophus. The performance of the model beat other classical models, including SqueezeNet, AlexNet, VGG16_BN, ShuffleNetV2, GoogleNet, ResNet50 and EfficientNet_B0, according to the predicting precision, recall, accuracy, F1-score. Our model achieved the highest identification accuracy of 94.22% and an F1-score of 0.948 with low computational complexity. Heat maps obtained with Grad-CAM show that our model meets the identification criteria of the morphology of Rhinolophus. Our study highlights the potential of artificial intelligence technology for the identification of small mammals, and facilitating fast species identification in the future.

Importance of habitat heterogeneity in tidal flats to the conservation of migratory shorebirds.

Understanding species distribution patterns and what determines them is critical for effective conservation planning and management. In the case of shorebirds migrating along the East Asian-Australasian Flyway (EAAF), the loss of stopover habitat in the Yellow Sea region is thought to be the primary reason for the precipitous population declines. However, the rates of decline vary considerably among species, and it remains unclear how such differences could arise within a group of closely related species using apparently similar habitats at the same locales. We mapped the spatial distributions of foraging shorebirds, as well as biotic (benthic invertebrates consumed by migrating shorebirds) and abiotic (sediment characteristics) environmental factors, at a key stopover site in eastern China. Five of the six sediment characteristics showed significant spatial variation with respect to distance along the shoreline or distance from the seawall in the same tidal flat. The biomasses of four of the six most abundant benthic invertebrates were concentrated in the upper or middle zones of the tidal flat. The distribution patterns of all three focal shorebird species on the tidal flat were best explained jointly by this heterogeneity of sediment characteristics and invertebrate prey. These results suggest that the loss of tidal flats along the Yellow Sea, which is typically concentrated at the upper and middle zones, may not only reduce the overall amount of staging habitat, but also disproportionately affect the most resource-rich portions for the birds. Effective conservation of shorebird staging areas along the EAAF and likely elsewhere must consider the subtle habitat heterogeneity that characterizes these tidal flats, prioritizing the protection of those portions richest in food resources, most frequently used by focal bird species, and most vulnerable to anthropogenic threats. Article impact statement: Heterogeneity of tidal flats with respect to biotic and abiotic factors must be considered in shorebird conservation planning.

Can biogeography help bumblebee conservation?

Bumblebees (Bombus Latreille, 1802), because of their large body size, bright colours and activity at times and places that coincide with biologists, are an example of a group of insects that is particularly well represented in museum collections. This is important if taxonomic revisions are to achieve greater comparability among species. Bumblebees have also attracted particular attention because they are especially ecologically and economically valuable for pollination in north temperate regions, where they are now becoming increasingly threatened. I argue that the what, the where, and the how of effective conservation management may be informed by understanding the divergent characteristics that have affected their biogeographical past: by helping us to see ‘the woods’, not just ‘the trees’, of their habitat needs. Identifying suitable habitat should be part of reconstructing historical biogeography within taxonomic revisions. For bumblebees, for example, biogeographical analysis associates major taxonomic groups either with flower-rich lowland grasslands or with flower-rich montane grasslands, highlighting their contrasting requirements for: nest sites, flowers of different depths, pollen-plant families, and especially the differing importance of early spring and late summer flowers for breeding success. This broad view of species groups helps filter the less important idiosyncrasies from local case studies in order to focus conservation actions.