Effects Of Cold Water Immersion Research Articles

Cold Water Immersion is Acutely Detrimental but Increases Performance Post-12 h in Rugby Players.

We evaluated the effectiveness of cold water immersion on recovery of performance (i. e., the ability of repetitively performing a physical test) in rugby players acutely and 12 h later. 8 male rugby union players (23±4.7 years; 176.9±4.5 cm; 87.5±8.6 kg) performed a rugby-specific exercise protocol (40 min) followed by recovery strategies: cold water immersion (8.9±0.6°C; 9 min with 1 min out of water, repeated twice) or control (players remained seated for 20 min) in a random order. The players underwent performance tests (countermovement and 30 s continuous jumps and agility T) at 4 time points: at baseline, immediately after rugby-specific exercise, post-recovery strategies and 12 h later. The performance of the agility and countermovement jump test were not different between cold water immersion and control immediately post rugby-specific exercises and 12 h thereafter. However, the 30 s continuous jump test performance decreased immediately but increased 12 h later after cold water immersion compared with control. Perception of recovery was better in the cold water immersion group compared with controls post 12 h exercise. Cold water immersion improves 30 s continuous jump performance, total quality recovery and seems to be an easy and practical tool for coaches and players, especially during congested periods of the season when fast recovery (~12 h) for the following activity is essential.

The effects of cold water immersion on inflammation, growth and neurotrophic factors in skeletal muscle after resistance exercise

Cold water immersion is often used to recover from exercise in the belief that it reduces muscle soreness and inflammation. However, no data currently exist to support this notion—at least in humans. We compared the effects of cold water immersion versus active recovery on neutrophil and macrophages, pro‐inflammatory cytokines, neurotrophic and growth factors, heat shock proteins and transcription factors in muscle after resistance exercise. In a randomized cross‐over design, 10 active men performed resistance exercise using one leg on separate days. On one day, they immersed their lower body in cold water (10°C) for 10 min after exercise. On the other day they cycled at a low‐intensity for 10 min after exercise. Muscle biopsies were collected from each leg before, 2, 24 and 48 h after exercise. Exercise induced a strong inflammatory response, as indicated by increases in neutrophil and macrophage counts and IL‐1β, TNF‐α, IL‐6 and MCP‐1 mRNA (P<0.05). Growth arrest and DNA damage‐inducible 45 protein (Gadd 45) mRNA also increased markedly (P<0.05). As evidence of hyperalgesia, nerve growth factor (NGF) and glial cell‐line derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) mRNA increased after exercise (P<0.05). The protein abundance of Forkhead box class O (FOXO) and αB‐crystallin in the cytosolic fraction of muscle homogenates decreased after exercise (P<0.05), indicating nuclear translocation. Despite these robust responses, there were no significant differences in any of these factors between the two trials. Therefore, contrary to popular belief, cold water immersion did not attenuate inflammation or markers of soreness in muscle after intense resistance exercise.

The Effects of Cold Water Immersion on Postexercise Muscle Soreness and Fatigue

Clinical Question:Is there evidence to suggest continuous cold water immersion (CWI) as a postexercise recovery intervention is more effective at reducing perceived muscle fatigue or soreness as measured using a Visual Analog Scale (VAS) when compared with passive rest in physically active adults?Summary of Key Findings:A systematic search of the literature produced 124 studies, with two randomized controlled trials and two cross-over studies meeting the inclusion criteria.Clinical Bottom Line:There is inconsistent, limited-quality evidence to support that the use of CWI postexercise is more effective at reducing perceived muscle fatigue or soreness in physically active adults when compared with passive rest. The results of the included studies were inconsistent regarding the application of continuous CWI for 10–14 min to reduce perceived muscle fatigue and soreness when compared with passive rest. The good-quality evidence found no difference between conditions and the three limited-quality studies identified differences between the conditions.

Effects of Cold Water Immersion on Muscle Oxygenation During Repeated Bouts of Fatiguing Exercise: A Randomized Controlled Study.

Postexercise cold water immersion has been advocated to athletes as a means of accelerating recovery and improving performance. Given the effects of cold water immersion on blood flow, evaluating in vivo changes in tissue oxygenation during cold water immersion may help further our understanding of this recovery modality. This study aimed to investigate the effects of cold water immersion on muscle oxygenation and performance during repeated bouts of fatiguing exercise in a group of healthy young adults.Twenty healthy subjects performed 2 fatiguing bouts of maximal dynamic knee extension and flexion contractions both concentrically on an isokinetic dynamometer with a 10-min recovery period in between. Subjects were randomly assigned to either a cold water immersion (treatment) or passive recovery (control) group. Changes in muscle oxygenation were monitored continuously using near-infrared spectroscopy. Muscle performance was measured with isokinetic dynamometry during each fatiguing bout. Skin temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, and muscle soreness ratings were also assessed. Repeated measures ANOVA analysis was used to evaluate treatment effects.The treatment group had a significantly lower mean heart rate and lower skin temperature compared to the control group (P < 0.05). Cold water immersion attenuated a reduction in tissue oxygenation in the second fatiguing bout by 4% when compared with control. Muscle soreness was rated lower 1 day post-testing (P < 0.05). However, cold water immersion had no significant effect on muscle performance in subsequent exercise.As the results show that cold water immersion attenuated decreased tissue oxygenation in subsequent exercise performance, the metabolic response to exercise after cold water immersion is worthy of further exploration.

Can Water Temperature and Immersion Time Influence the Effect of Cold Water Immersion on Muscle Soreness? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

BackgroundCold water immersion (CWI) is a technique commonly used in post-exercise recovery. However, the procedures involved in the technique may vary, particularly in terms of water temperature and immersion time, and the most effective approach remains unclear.ObjectivesThe objective of this systematic review was to determine the efficacy of CWI in muscle soreness management compared with passive recovery. We also aimed to identify which water temperature and immersion time provides the best results.MethodsThe MEDLINE, EMBASE, SPORTDiscus, PEDro [Physiotherapy Evidence Database], and CENTRAL (Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials) databases were searched up to January 2015. Only randomized controlled trials that compared CWI to passive recovery were included in this review. Data were pooled in a meta-analysis and described as weighted mean differences (MDs) with 95 % confidence intervals (CIs).ResultsNine studies were included for review and meta-analysis. The results of the meta-analysis revealed that CWI has a more positive effect than passive recovery in terms of immediate (MD = 0.290, 95 % CI 0.037, 0.543; p = 0.025) and delayed effects (MD = 0.315, 95 % CI 0.048, 0.581; p = 0.021). Water temperature of between 10 and 15 °C demonstrated the best results for immediate (MD = 0.273, 95 % CI 0.107, 0.440; p = 0.001) and delayed effects (MD = 0.317, 95 % CI 0.102, 0.532; p = 0.004). In terms of immersion time, immersion of between 10 and 15 min had the best results for immediate (MD = 0.227, 95 % 0.139, 0.314; p < 0.001) and delayed effects (MD = 0.317, 95 % 0.102, 0.532, p = 0.004).ConclusionsThe available evidence suggests that CWI can be slightly better than passive recovery in the management of muscle soreness. The results also demonstrated the presence of a dose–response relationship, indicating that CWI with a water temperature of between 11 and 15 °C and an immersion time of 11–15 min can provide the best results.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s40279-015-0431-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The effects of cold water immersion with different dosages (duration and temperature variations) on heart rate variability post-exercise recovery: A randomized controlled trial.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of cold water immersion during post-exercise recovery, with different durations and temperatures, on heart rate variability indices. Hundred participants performed a protocol of jumps and a Wingate test, and immediately afterwards were immersed in cold water, according to the characteristics of each group (CG: control; G1: 5' at 9±1°C; G2: 5' at 14±1°C; G3: 15' at 9±1°C; G4: 15' at 14±1°C). Analyses were performed at baseline, during the CWI recuperative technique (TRec) and 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60min post-exercise. The average HRV indices of all RR-intervals in each analysis period (MeanRR), standard deviation of normal RR-intervals (SDNN), square root of the mean of the sum of the squares of differences between adjacent RR-intervals (RMSSD), spectral components of very low frequency (VLF), low frequency (LF) and high frequency (HF), scatter of points perpendicular to the line of identity of the Poincaré Plot (SD1) and scatter points along the line of identity (SD2) were assessed. Mean RR, VLF and LF presented an anticipated return to baseline values at all the intervention groups, but the same was observed for SDNN and SD2 only in the immersion for 15min at 14°C group (G4). In addition, G4 presented higher values when compared to CG. These findings demonstrate that if the purpose of the recovery process is restoration of cardiac autonomic modulation, the technique is recommended, specifically for 15min at 14°C.

Optimizing Cold Water Immersion for Exercise-Induced Hyperthermia

Cold water immersion (CWI) provides rapid cooling in events of exertional heat stroke. Optimal procedures for CWI in the field are not well established. This meta-analysis aimed to provide structured analysis of the effectiveness of CWI on the cooling rate in healthy adults subjected to exercise-induced hyperthermia. An electronic search (December 2014) was conducted using the PubMed and Web of Science. The mean difference of the cooling rate between CWI and passive recovery was calculated. Pooled analyses were based on a random-effects model. Sources of heterogeneity were identified through a mixed-effects model Q statistic. Inferential statistics aggregated the CWI cooling rate for extrapolation. Nineteen studies qualified for inclusion. Results demonstrate CWI elicited a significant effect: mean difference, 0.03°C·min(-1); 95% confidence interval, 0.03-0.04°C·min(-1). A conservative, observed estimate of the CWI cooling rate was 0.08°C·min(-1) across various conditions. CWI cooled individuals twice as fast as passive recovery. Subgroup analyses revealed that cooling was more effective (Q test P < 0.10) when preimmersion core temperature ≥38.6°C, immersion water temperature ≤10°C, ambient temperature ≥20°C, immersion duration ≤10 min, and using torso plus limbs immersion. There is insufficient evidence of effect using forearms/hands CWI for rapid cooling: mean difference, 0.01°C·min(-1); 95% confidence interval, -0.01°C·min(-1) to 0.04°C·min(-1). A combined data summary, pertaining to 607 subjects from 29 relevant studies, was presented for referencing the weighted cooling rate and recovery time, aiming for practitioners to better plan emergency procedures. An optimal procedure for yielding high cooling rates is proposed. Using prompt vigorous CWI should be encouraged for treating exercise-induced hyperthermia whenever possible, using cold water temperature (approximately 10°C) and maximizing body surface contact (whole-body immersion).

Effects of cold water immersion on variables of balance in healthy subjects with open and closed eyes

AbstractIntroduction Cryotherapy is the use of cold as therapeutic approach. Although often used, its impact on the postural balance is not well-known.Objectives To analyze the effects of cold water immersion in the postural balance on single-leg balance in healthy subjects through the variables of center-of-pressure, velocity anteroposterior and medial-lateral oscillations, comparing conditions open and closed eyes in the moments before, immediately, 20 and 40 minutes after cold water immersion.Material and methods Cross-sectional study with 30 male subjects, cold water immersion at 5 °C during 15 minutes assessed in a force platform, protocol of 3 trials of 30 seconds each with 10 seconds of rest, the average of the 3 trials was used for analysis. The software GraphPad Prisma 5.0 was used for statistical analysis, with the ANOVA test for repeated measures and comparisons with test of Friedman and post-test of Dunn.Results It was observed improvement of the balance by the results of the following variables: in the condition Open Eyes (OE) it was observed significant difference only in the velocity anteroposterior (AP) in the moment before immersion when compared to the 40-minute moment. Significant differences were observed in the condition Closed Eyes (CE) in the following comparisons: in the Center-of-Pressure (COP) only at the immediate moment when compared to the 40-minute moment; in the velocity AP in the moment before when compared to the 40-minute moment, in the immediate moment when compared to the 20-minute and 40-minute moments; and in the medial-lateral velocity (Vel-ML) in two comparisons: in the moment before immersion when compared to the 20-minute and 40-minute moments after cryotherapy. Results show safety in performing activities after cryotherapy.Conclusion Improvement of the postural balance after cold water immersion on the predetermined conditions of this study.

Effects of cold water immersion and active recovery on hemodynamics and recovery of muscle strength following resistance exercise.

Cold water immersion (CWI) and active recovery (ACT) are frequently used as postexercise recovery strategies. However, the physiological effects of CWI and ACT after resistance exercise are not well characterized. We examined the effects of CWI and ACT on cardiac output (Q̇), muscle oxygenation (SmO2), blood volume (tHb), muscle temperature (Tmuscle), and isometric strength after resistance exercise. On separate days, 10 men performed resistance exercise, followed by 10 min CWI at 10°C or 10 min ACT (low-intensity cycling). Q̇ (7.9 ± 2.7 l) and Tmuscle (2.2 ± 0.8°C) increased, whereas SmO2 (-21.5 ± 8.8%) and tHb (-10.1 ± 7.7 μM) decreased after exercise (P < 0.05). During CWI, Q̇ (-1.1 ± 0.7 l) and Tmuscle (-6.6 ± 5.3°C) decreased, while tHb (121 ± 77 μM) increased (P < 0.05). In the hour after CWI, Q̇ and Tmuscle remained low, while tHb also decreased (P < 0.05). By contrast, during ACT, Q̇ (3.9 ± 2.3 l), Tmuscle (2.2 ± 0.5°C), SmO2 (17.1 ± 5.7%), and tHb (91 ± 66 μM) all increased (P < 0.05). In the hour after ACT, Tmuscle, and tHb remained high (P < 0.05). Peak isometric strength during 10-s maximum voluntary contractions (MVCs) did not change significantly after CWI, whereas it decreased after ACT (-30 to -45 Nm; P < 0.05). Muscle deoxygenation time during MVCs increased after ACT (P < 0.05), but not after CWI. Muscle reoxygenation time after MVCs tended to increase after CWI (P = 0.052). These findings suggest first that hemodynamics and muscle temperature after resistance exercise are dependent on ambient temperature and metabolic demands with skeletal muscle, and second, that recovery of strength after resistance exercise is independent of changes in hemodynamics and muscle temperature.

Cold-water immersion alters muscle recruitment and balance of basketball players during vertical jump landing

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of cold-water immersion on the electromyographic (EMG) response of the lower limb and balance during unipodal jump landing. The evaluation comprised 40 individuals (20 basketball players and 20 non-athletes). The EMG response in the lateral gastrocnemius, tibialis anterior, fibular longus, rectus femoris, hamstring and gluteus medius; amplitude and mean speed of the centre of pressure, flight time and ground reaction force (GRF) were analysed. All volunteers remained for 20 min with their ankle immersed in cold-water, and were re-evaluated immediately post and after 10, 20 and 30 min of reheating. The Shapiro–Wilk test, Friedman test and Dunn’s post test (P < 0.05) were used. The EMG response values decreased for the lateral gastrocnemius, tibialis anterior, fibular longus and rectus femoris of both athletes and non-athletes (P < 0.05). The comparison between the groups showed that the EMG response was lower for the athletes. Lower jump flight time and GRF, greater amplitude and mean speed of centre of pressure were predominant in the athletes. Cold-water immersion decreased the EMG activity of the lower limb, flight time and GRF and increased the amplitude and mean speed of centre of pressure.

Does Post Exercise Cold Water Immersion Alter Intramuscular Hsp72 After 4 Weeks Of High Intensity Interval Training?

Cold water immersion (CWI) is a recovery strategy commonly employed by athletes. The purpose of its use is based on possible reductions in muscle inflammation, oedema, and fatigue, thereby facilitating recovery. Furthermore, it is not clear if CWI can interfere with intramuscular signaling adaptation and with exercise performance. PURPOSE: the purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effect of CWI in intramuscular heat shock protein 72 kda (Hsp72) and exercise performance after 4 weeks of high intensity interval training (HIIT). METHODS: 17 healthy subjects (age: 23 ± 3 years old, body weight: 68.7 ± 9.2 kg, height 171 ± 7 cm; body fat: 23.5 ± 5.2%) were allocated into 2 groups: control (CON, n=9) and cold water immersion (CWI, n=8). Vastus lateralis biopsies were obtained pre and post training. To evaluate intramuscular content of Hsp72, we performed western blot. Exercise performance was evaluated before and after 4 weeks of HIIT through an individualized ramp test and 15 km cycling time trial. Each HIIT session consisted of 8-12 cycling exercise stimuli (90-110% of the peak power) for 60 seconds followed by active recovery intervals of 75 seconds at 30W 3 times per week. After each HIIT session, the CWI group had their lower limbs immersed in cold water (10°C) for 15 minutes and the CON group recovered at room temperature. RESULTS: The Hsp72 muscle content increased with training, but was not different between recovery methods (CON 100 ± 28% to 124 ± 37% and CWI 100 ± 31% to 131 ± 23%, p=0.29). Time to complete the time trial reduced with training (p<0.001), but was not different between recovery methods (p=0.33, CON 42.9 ± 1.9 to 38.7 ± 2.9 min and CWI 42.4 ± 2.5 to 37.7 ± 3.0 min, pre versus post, respectively). Maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max) increased with training in both groups (p=0.001), but was not different between recovery methods (p=0.43, CON 48.7 ± 5.6 to 51.2 ± 4.8 ml.kg-1.mim-1 and CWI 45.7 ± 5.6 to 50.4 ± 4.8 ml.kg-1.mim-1, pre versus post, respectively). The HIIT protocol was effective in improving performance, but the recovery intervention did not affect intramuscular Hsp72. CONCLUSION: We conclude that cold water immersion does not alter training induce intramuscular Hsp72 adaptations and exercise performance induced by HIIT. Supported by FAPEMIG (APQ-01382-12), CAPES and CNPq (407252/2013-4)

Optimizing Cold Water Immersion For Exercise-Induced Hyperthermia

PURPOSE: Overwhelming evidence indicates cold water immersion (CWI) provides superior cooling rates for hyperthermic individuals. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of CWI on the cooling rate in healthy adults subject to exercise-induced hyperthermia. METHODS: Eleven studies qualified for inclusion. Included in the meta-analysis were standardized mean difference (SMD; Hedges’ g) including 95% confidence intervals (CI), parallel with mean ± SD of cooling rates for CWI from each study/data set. Using a random-effects model, heterogeneity was established computing the I2 statistic. RESULTS: Thirteen cooling rates pertaining to 159 subjects show a significant overall SMD = 2.48 (95% CI: 1.57-3.39, P < 0.0001). CWI elicited 2.3-fold greater cooling rate than passive rest (CON): CWI 0.14 ± 0.07°C·min-1 vs. CON 0.06 ± 0.04°C·min-1. Meta-regression showed immersion time was not correlated to cooling rate (Cochran’s Q = 2.98, P = 0.08). Subgroup analyses revealed that immersion water temperature was a strong moderator of cooling rate, with the fastest cooling rate using <5°C (SMD = 8.29, P < 0.0001) and 5-10°C CWI (SMD = 2.18, P = 0.028). Using the mean cooling rate from this meta-analysis, it is projected that it requires ∼7, 10, 14, 23 min to cool a hyperthermic individual from 40.0°C to 38.6°C, for <5°C, 5-10°C, 10-15°C CWI, and CON, respectively. CONCLUSION: CWI should be encouraged for treating exercise-induced hyperthermia whenever possible, using as cold a water temperature as possible.

Breath-hold times in air compared to breath-hold times during cold water immersions.

Given the effects of cold water immersion on breath-hold (BH) capabilities, a practical training exercise was developed for military/paramilitary personnel completing a helicopter underwater egress training (HUET) program. The exercise was designed to provide firsth and experience of the effects of cold water exposure on BH time. After completing the required HUET, 47 subjects completed two BH testing sessions as well as a short questionnaire. The first BH was completed while standing on the pool deck. The second BH was completed while fully immersed (face down) in 2-3°C water. There were 40 of the volunteers who also breathed from an emergency breathing system (EBS) while in the cold water. Results demonstrated that BH capabilities in cold water were significantly lower than those in ambient air. A significant correlation was also found between BH in air and the difference in cold water vs. air BH capabilities, which suggests that subjects who can hold their breath the longest in air experienced the greatest decrease in BH when immersed. Results indicate that 92% of the subjects reported that the practical cold water immersion exercise had a high value. Finally, 58% of those who used the EBS reported that it was harder to breathe in cold water than while in the training pool (approximately 22°C). The BH times for this group were similar to those reported in previous cold water immersion studies. Based on the questionnaire results, it is possible, when carefully applied, to include a practical cold water immersion exercise into existing HUET programs.

Effectiveness of cold water immersion in the treatment of exertional heat stroke at the Falmouth Road Race.

This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness (speed of cooling and survival rates) of cold water immersion (CWI) in the treatment of patients with exertional heat stroke (EHS). Secondly, this study aimed to compare cooling rates on the basis of gender, age, and initial rectal temperature (Tr). Eighteen years of finish line medical tent patient records were obtained from the exertional heat illness treatment area at the Falmouth Road Race. Study participants included patients with EHS who were treated with CWI in the medical tent. The number of EHS cases was recorded for each year, and incidence was established on the basis of the number of finishers. Overall cooling rate and differences between initial Tr, age, and sex were evaluated. A total of 274 cases of EHS was observed over the 18 yr of collected data. A mean of 15.2 ± 13.0 EHS cases per year was recorded, with an overall incidence of 2.13 ± 1.62 EHS cases per 1000 finishers. The average initial Tr was 41.44°C ± 0.63°C, and the average cooling rate for patients with EHS was 0.22°C·min ± 0.11°C·min. CWI resulted in a 100% survival rate for all patients with EHS. No significant interactions between cooling rate and initial Tr (P = 0.778), sex (P = 0.89), or age (P = 0.70) were observed. CWI was found to effectively treat all cases of EHS observed in this study. CWI provided similar treatment outcomes in all patients, with no significant differences noted on the basis of initial Tr, age, or sex. On the basis of the 100% survival rate from EHS in this large cohort, it is recommended that immediate (on site) CWI be implemented for the treatment of EHS.

Post-Exercise Cold Water Immersion on Sports Performance Recovery: A Review

Post-exercise cold water immersion (CWI) has recently been developed and applied in professional sports. CWI has become widely accepted for use in sports and is endorsed by various organisations, such as the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF), and the National Athletic Trainers’ Association (NATA). Specific considerations on the extensive use of CWI in the field of sports, the effects of performance recovery after CWI intervention are noteworthy to be examined. This article aimed to review and summarize reports studying effects of CWI on post-exercise recovery. A comprehensive examination of literature was conducted and the decided databases were reviewed. Positive effects of post-exercise CWI on athletes’ endurance performance and perceived recovery were found. The possible reasons relate to the reduction of core temperature and blood redistribution. However, CWI effects on power related performance did not receive a consensus understanding in this review. Cryotherapy is normally used for limiting muscle damages, but post-exercise CWI on alternating blood markers for the muscle damages did not show a clear finding in this review. Particularly, Jadad score analysis in this review shows low on average (average Jadad score = 1.80±1.17) of the quality of the studies. It is necessary to reconsider the application on the previous examination. Further investigation is recommended, specifically on power related recovery and neural transmission alternations using randomized controlled trial with masking design.

Effects of cold water immersion on lower extremity joint biomechanics during running

The purpose of this study was to identify the influence of cryotherapy on lower extremity running biomechanics. Twenty-six healthy male volunteers were randomised into two intervention groups: cold water (cold water at ~11°C) or tepid water (tepid water at ~26°C). They were required to run at 4.0 ± 0.2 m · s−1 before and after they underwent water immersion for 20 min. Differences between pre- and post-intervention were used to compare the influence of water intervention during running. Peak joint angles, peak joint moments, peak ground reaction forces (GRF) and contact time (CT) were calculated using three-dimensional gait analysis. Independent t-tests were applied with a significant alpha level set at 0.05. Decreased peak propulsive and vertical GRF, decreased plantarflexion moments, increased hip flexion angle and longer CT were observed following cold water immersion. Although cold water immersion (cryotherapy) affected the running movement, none of the alterations have been related to running biomechanical patterns associated with injuries. Therefore, our results indicated that cold water immersion appears safe prior to running activities.

Cold water immersion enhances recovery of submaximal muscle function after resistance exercise.

We investigated the effect of cold water immersion (CWI) on the recovery of muscle function and physiological responses after high-intensity resistance exercise. Using a randomized, cross-over design, 10 physically active men performed high-intensity resistance exercise followed by one of two recovery interventions: 1) 10 min of CWI at 10°C or 2) 10 min of active recovery (low-intensity cycling). After the recovery interventions, maximal muscle function was assessed after 2 and 4 h by measuring jump height and isometric squat strength. Submaximal muscle function was assessed after 6 h by measuring the average load lifted during 6 sets of 10 squats at 80% of 1 repetition maximum. Intramuscular temperature (1 cm) was also recorded, and venous blood samples were analyzed for markers of metabolism, vasoconstriction, and muscle damage. CWI did not enhance recovery of maximal muscle function. However, during the final three sets of the submaximal muscle function test, participants lifted a greater load (P < 0.05, Cohen's effect size: 1.3, 38%) after CWI compared with active recovery. During CWI, muscle temperature decreased ∼7°C below postexercise values and remained below preexercise values for another 35 min. Venous blood O2 saturation decreased below preexercise values for 1.5 h after CWI. Serum endothelin-1 concentration did not change after CWI, whereas it decreased after active recovery. Plasma myoglobin concentration was lower, whereas plasma IL-6 concentration was higher after CWI compared with active recovery. These results suggest that CWI after resistance exercise allows athletes to complete more work during subsequent training sessions, which could enhance long-term training adaptations.

Does Hydrotherapy Help or Hinder Adaptation to Training in Competitive Cyclists?

Cold water immersion (CWI) may be beneficial for acute recovery from exercise, but it may impair long-term performance by attenuating the stimuli responsible for adaptation to training. We compared effects of CWI and passive rest on cycling performance during a simulated cycling grand tour. Thirty-four male endurance-trained competitive cyclists were randomized to CWI for four times per week for 15 min at 15°C or control (passive recovery) groups for 7 d of baseline training, 21 d of intensified training, and an 11-d taper. Criteria for completion of training and testing were satisfied by 10 cyclists in the CWI group (maximal aerobic power, 5.13 ± 0.21 W·kg; mean ± SD) and 11 in the control group (5.01 ± 0.41 W·kg). Each week, cyclists completed a high-intensity interval cycling test and two 4-min bouts separated by 30 min. CWI was performed four times per week for 15 min at 15°C. Between baseline and taper, cyclists in the CWI group had an unclear change in overall 4-min power relative to control (2.7% ± 5.7%), although mean power in the second effort relative to the first was likely higher for the CWI group relative to control (3.0% ± 3.8%). The change in 1-s maximum mean sprint power in the CWI group was likely beneficial compared with control (4.4% ± 4.2%). Differences between groups for the 10-min time trial were unclear (-0.4% ± 4.3%). Although some effects of CWI on performance were unclear, data from this study do not support recent speculation that CWI is detrimental to performance after increased training load in competitive cyclists.

Effect of Run Training and Cold-Water Immersion on Subsequent Cycle Training Quality in High-Performance Triathletes

The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of cold-water immersion (CWI) on physiological, psychological, and biochemical markers of recovery and subsequent cycling performance after intensive run training. Seven high-performance male triathletes (age: 28.6 ± 7.1 years; cycling VO2peak: 73.4 ± 10.2 ml · kg(-1) · min(-1)) completed 2 trials in a randomized crossover design consisting of 7 × 5-minute running intervals at 105% of individual anaerobic threshold followed by either CWI (10 ± 0.5° C) or thermoneutral water immersion (TNI; 34 ± 0.5° C). Subjects immersed their legs in water 5 times for 60 seconds with 60-second passive rest between each immersion. Nine hours after immersion, inflammatory and muscle damage markers, and perceived recovery measures were obtained before the subjects completed a 5-minute maximal cycling test followed by a high-quality cycling interval training set (6 × 5-minute intervals). Power output, heart rate, blood lactate (La), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were also recorded during the cycling time-trial and interval set. Performance was enhanced (change, ± 90% confidence limits) in the CWI condition during the cycling interval training set (power output [W · kg(-1)], 2.1 ± 1.7%, La [mmol · L(-1)], 18 ± 18.1%, La:RPE, 19.8 ± 17.5%). However, there was an unclear effect of CWI on 5-minute maximal cycling time-trial performance, and there was no significant influence on perceptual measures of fatigue/recovery, despite small to moderate effects. The effect of CWI on the biochemical markers was mostly unclear, however, there was a substantial effect for interleukin-10 (20 ± 13.4%). These results suggest that compared with TNI, CWI may be effective for enhancing cycling interval training performance after intensive interval-running training.

Effects of β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate free acid and cold water immersion on post-exercise markers of muscle damage

The aim of the current study was to examine the effects of cold water immersion (CWI) with and without the free acid form of β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB-FA) on markers of muscle damage following acute lower body resistance exercise. Forty recreationally resistance-trained men (22.3 ± 2.4 years) were randomly divided into one of the four groups: (1) Placebo (PL); (2) HMB-FA; (3) HMB-FA-CWI; (4) PL-CWI. HMB-FA groups ingested 3 g day(-1) and CWI groups submersed their lower body into 10-12 °C water for 10-min post-exercise. No differences between groups were observed for CK; however, PL-CWI had significantly greater elevations in myoglobin 30-min post-exercise compared to HMB-FA (p = 0.009) and PL (p = 0.005), and HMB-FA-CWI was significantly greater than HMB-FA (p = 0.046) and PL (p = 0.028). No differences between groups were observed for IL-6 and IL-10, although CRP was significantly greater 24-h post-exercise for PL-CWI compared to HMB-FA-CWI (p = 0.02) and HMB-FA (p = 0.046). Only HMB-FA-CWI showed significantly (p = 0.02) greater improvements in average power per repetition. CWI appeared to elevate myoglobin compared to other groups, while HMB-FA may have attenuated the increase in CRP when combined with CWI. Nevertheless, HMB-FA or CWI treatments did not appear to provide benefit over PL for recovery. Instead, the combination of CWI and HMB-FA improved performance recovery compared to other groups.