Age Of Acquisition Effects Research Articles

Listening to accented speech in a second language: First language and age of acquisition effects.

Bilingual speakers must acquire the phonemic inventory of 2 languages and need to recognize spoken words cross-linguistically; a demanding job potentially made even more difficult due to dialectal variation, an intrinsic property of speech. The present work examines how bilinguals perceive second language (L2) accented speech and where accommodation to dialectal variation takes place. Dialectal effects were analyzed at different levels: An AXB discrimination task tapped phonetic-phonological representations, an auditory lexical-decision task tested for effects in accessing the lexicon, and an auditory priming task looked for semantic processing effects. Within that central focus, the goal was to see whether perceptual adjustment at a given level is affected by 2 main linguistic factors: bilinguals' first language and age of acquisition of the L2. Taking advantage of the cross-linguistic situation of the Basque language, bilinguals with different first languages (Spanish or French) and ages of acquisition of Basque (simultaneous, early, or late) were tested. Our use of multiple tasks with multiple types of bilinguals demonstrates that in spite of very similar discrimination capacity, French-Basque versus Spanish-Basque simultaneous bilinguals' performance on lexical access significantly differed. Similarly, results of the early and late groups show that the mapping of phonetic-phonological information onto lexical representations is a more demanding process that accentuates non-native processing difficulties. L1 and AoA effects were more readily overcome in semantic processing; accented variants regularly created priming effects in the different groups of bilinguals. (PsycINFO Database Record

Age of acquisition of the second language modulates structural and functional dynamics of bilingual reading

Age of acquisition of the second language modulates structural and functional dynamics of bilingual reading

Neural correlates of age of acquisition on visual word recognition in Persian

Abstract The effect of Age of Acquisition (AoA) on visual word recognition is remarkable. However, there is debate about the loci of AoA effects. The Arbitrary Mapping hypothesis assumes AoA reflects mappings between input (e.g. orthography) and output (e.g. phonology) formed during the acquisition of literacy. An alternative view is that AoA reflects the acquisition of concepts. The AM hypothesis predicts reduced AoA effects on the recognition of written words with transparent mappings between orthography and phonological e.g. chair compared to written words with more opaque mappings between orthography and phonology e.g. choir . In the Persian language, mappings between letters and phonological output are predictable and transparent. However, in skilled reading, many written words become opaque due to the omission of vowels (diacritics) in adult text. Using event-related potential methods (ERP) we tested the prediction that AoA effects on ERP components would be reduced for words with transparent spellings compared to words with opaque spellings for skilled readers. We found an effect of AoA on visual word recognition in the window between 300 and 450 ms with higher N400 negativity for late acquired words and an interaction between transparency and AoA at an unexpected late component (450–700 ms) with significantly higher positivity for late acquired opaque words only. We conclude that AoA effects on Persian visual word recognition reflect arbitrary mappings between print and sound and offer a neurolinguistic account of AoA effects.

Semantic Integration and Age of Acquisition Effects in Code-Blend Comprehension.

Semantic and lexical decision tasks were used to investigate the mechanisms underlying code-blend facilitation: the finding that hearing bimodal bilinguals comprehend signs in American Sign Language (ASL) and spoken English words more quickly when they are presented together simultaneously than when each is presented alone. More robust facilitation effects were observed for semantic decision than for lexical decision, suggesting that lexical integration of signs and words within a code-blend occurs primarily at the semantic level, rather than at the level of form. Early bilinguals exhibited greater facilitation effects than late bilinguals for English (the dominant language) in the semantic decision task, possibly because early bilinguals are better able to process early visual cues from ASL signs and use these to constrain English word recognition. Comprehension facilitation via semantic integration of words and signs is consistent with co-speech gesture research demonstrating facilitative effects of gesture integration on language comprehension.

Aphasia and age of acquisition: are early-learned words more resilient?

ABSTRACTBackground: Aphasia patients can produce some words reliably but have difficulty retrieving other words. In this article we review one of the variables that have been proposed to explain which words remain available.Aims: Age of acquisition (AoA) refers to the age at which people learn a word. We review the evidence indicating that early-learned words remain more accessible than late-learned words in acquired aphasia. We examine the most likely mechanisms.Methods and procedures: We review the various studies that investigated the effect of AoA on word retrieval in acquired aphasia and in dementia. We link the findings to differences in processing efficiency in healthy individuals and to the mechanisms that have been proposed there to explain the differences. We also have a critical look at the methods used in various studies and investigate which precautions must be taken to advance our knowledge about the AoA effect.Outcomes and results: We argue that the effects of AoA and frequency are a result of the brain acquiring information over time in an incremental manner, improving with practice and possibly showing a decline in plasticity as the brain ages and more information becomes stored. Because AoA is yoked to frequency, an AoA effect is likely to be accompanied by a frequency effect of roughly the same size. In addition, AoA has a unique effect on the ease with which the correct verbal response can be retrieved in a naming task based on semantic input, such as object naming.Conclusions: Words learned early in life are more likely to be retained in acquired aphasia than words learned later in life. The finding that AoA has a unique effect on the ease with which the correct verbal response can be retrieved in object naming may be due to the organisation of the semantic system, such that early acquired meanings are richer, more accessible and more robust against brain damage. Alternatively, it may be due to the way in which semantic information is translated in verbal output. To further our knowledge, researchers are encouraged to use more powerful regression designs with more stimuli, and to include better measures than has been done in the past. We also argue that more information can be gathered by not limiting the research to picture naming.

On the influence of typicality and age of acquisition on semantic processing: Diverging evidence from behavioural and ERP responses

Various behavioural studies show that semantic typicality (TYP) and age of acquisition (AOA) of a specific word influence processing time and accuracy during the performance of lexical-semantic tasks. This study examines the influence of TYP and AOA on semantic processing at behavioural (response times and accuracy data) and electrophysiological levels using an auditory category-member-verification task. Reaction time data reveal independent TYP and AOA effects, while in the accuracy data and the event-related potentials predominantly effects of TYP can be found. The present study thus confirms previous findings and extends evidence found in the visual modality to the auditory modality. A modality-independent influence on semantic word processing is manifested. However, with regard to the influence of AOA, the diverging results raise questions on the origin of AOA effects as well as on the interpretation of offline and online data. Hence, results will be discussed against the background of recent theories on N400 correlates in semantic processing. In addition, an argument in favour of a complementary use of research techniques will be made.

How age of acquisition influences brain architecture in bilinguals.

In the present study, we explored how Age of Acquisition (AoA) of L2 affected brain structures in bilingual individuals. Thirty-six native English speakers who were bilingual were scanned with high resolution MRI. After MRI signal intensity inhomogeneity correction, we applied both voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and surface-based morphometry (SBM) approaches to the data. VBM analysis was performed using FSL's standard VBM processing pipeline. For the SBM analysis, we utilized a semi-automated sulci delineation procedure, registered the brains to an atlas, and extracted measures of twenty four pre-selected regions of interest. We addressed three questions: (1) Which areas are more susceptible to differences in AoA? (2) How do AoA, proficiency and current level of exposure work together in predicting structural differences in the brain? And (3) What is the direction of the effect of AoA on regional volumetric and surface measures? Both VBM and SBM results suggested that earlier second language exposure was associated with larger volumes in the right parietal cortex. Consistently, SBM showed that the cortical area of the right superior parietal lobule increased as AoA decreased. In contrast, in the right pars orbitalis of the inferior frontal gyrus, AoA, proficiency, and current level of exposure are equally important in accounting for the structural differences. We interpret our results in terms of current theory and research on the effects of L2 learning on brain structures and functions.

Event-Related Brain Potentials During Picture Naming, Using Early and Late Acquired Words

Background: Naming is a simple and basic skill of the language which involves semantic, lexical, and phonological levels. There are many different factors affecting the speed and convenience of naming. One of these factors is the word Age of Acquisition (AoA) and since language processing occurs at an extremely fast rate, psycholinguistics needs a method that has very good temporal resolution. The Eventrelated Brain Potentials (ERP) method is almost ideal among the imaging techniques of studying a language. Objectives: The current study aimed to investigate the electroencephalograph signals related to the time period of phonological encoding during immediate picture naming through the analysis of AoA effect. Patients and Methods: In this cross-sectional study 15 male, native Farsi speakers, aged 18 - 25 years participated. The test involved naming 80 pictures including 40 early-acquired words and 40 late-acquired words, presented by a monitor screen. EEG (electroencephalogram) was recorded continuously from 64 electrodes mounted on an electrode cap. The waves related to early and late-acquired groups were investigated in terms of amplitude, latency, and scalp distribution within a 300 millisecond time range linked to phonological encoding process. Results: The results showed that the pictures of the early-acquired words were named 40 millisecond faster than those of late-acquired words (P = 0.022). The difference between the two groups was significant on the latency and scalp distribution, but not significant on amplitude. Conclusions: According to the results of the study, AoA modulated response latencies (early acquired words were produced faster than late-acquired ones), indicating increased processing time-cost for late acquired words, which happens during the phonological encoding period (phonological code retrieval and syllabification). Furthermore, the results seem to support a phonological encoding locus for the main AoA effects.

Age of Acquisition Effects in Chinese EFL learners’ Delexicalized Verb and Collocation Acquisition

This paper investigates age of acquisition (AoA) effects and the acquisition of delexicalized verbs and collocations in Chinese EFL learners, and explores the underlying reasons from the connectionist model for these learners’ acquisition characteristics. The data were collected through a translation test consisted of delexialized verb information section and English-Chinese and Chinese-English collocation parts, aiming to focus on Chinese EFL learners’ receptive and productive abilities respectively. As Chinese EFL is a nationally classroom-based practice beginning from early primary school, the pedagogical value and different phases of acquisition are thus taken into consideration in designing the translation test. Research results show that the effects of AoA are significant not only in the learners’ acquisition of individual delexicalized verbs but also in delexicalized collocations. Although learners have long begun to learn delexicalized verbs, their production indicates that early learning does not guarantee total acquisition, because their grasp of delexicalized verbs still stay at the senior middle school level. AoA effects significantly affect the recognition but not the production of collocations. Furthermore, a plateau effect occurs in learners’ acquisition of college-level delexicalized collocations, as their recognition and production have no processing advantages over earlier learned collocations.

Lexico-semantic effects on word naming in Persian: does age of acquisition have an effect?

The age of acquisition (AoA) of a word has an effect on skilled reading performance. According to the arbitrary-mapping (AM) hypothesis, AoA effects on word naming are a consequence of arbitrary mappings between input and output in the lexical network. The AM hypothesis predicts that effects of AoA will be observed when words have unpredictable orthography-to-phonology (OP) mappings. The Persian writing system is characterized by a degree of consistency between OP mappings, making words transparent. However, the omission of vowels in the script used by skilled readers makes the OP mappings of many words unpredictable or opaque. In this study, we used factor analysis to test which lexico-semantic variables, including AoA, predict the reading aloud of monosyllabic Persian words with different spelling transparencies (transparent or opaque). Linear mixed-effect regression analysis revealed that a Lexical factor (loading on word familiarity, spoken frequency, and written frequency) and a Semantic factor (loading on AoA, imageability, and familiarity) significantly predict word-naming latencies in Persian. Further analysis revealed a significant interaction between AoA and transparency, with larger effects of AoA for opaque than for transparent words and a significant interaction between imageability and AoA on reading opaque words; that is, AoA effects are more pronounced for low-imageability opaque words than for high-imageability opaque words. Interactions between these factors and spelling transparency suggest that late-acquired opaque words receive greater input from the semantic reading route. Implications for understanding the AoA effects on word naming in Persian are discussed.

Reading in Spanish and Italian: Effects of Age of Acquisition in Transparent Orthographies?

Despite the similar transparency of their orthographies, reading in Italian has been found to be affected by frequency but not age of acquisition (AoA) [Barca, L., Burani, C., & Arduino, L. S. (2002). Word naming times and psycholinguistic norms for Italian nouns. Behaviour Research Methods, Instruments and Computers, 34, 424-434] while reading in Spanish is affected by AoA but not frequency [Cuetos, F., & Barbón, A. (2006). Word naming in Spanish. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 18, 415-436]. We examined this cross-linguistic difference, firstly, through a reanalysis of the Italian and Spanish reading latencies. After eliminating several between-experiment differences, we replicated the AoA effect in Spanish but not in Italian and the frequency effect in Italian but not in Spanish. The cross-linguistic comparison could not equate stimulus imageability; therefore, secondly, we compared the Italian reading latencies with new Spanish reading latencies for imageability-matched words. We found frequency effects but neither an AoA effect nor a language by AoA interaction. We argue that the previously reported cross-linguistic difference in the AoA effect resulted from a between-study difference in stimulus imageability. More imageable words induced more semantic involvement in reading, yielding an AoA effect in Spanish.

Age of acquisition and naming performance in Frisian-Dutch bilingual speakers with dementia.

Age of acquisition (AoA) of words is a recognised variable affecting language processing in speakers with and without language disorders. For bi- and multilingual speakers their languages can be differentially affected in neurological illness. Study of language loss in bilingual speakers with dementia has been relatively neglected.ObjectiveWe investigated whether AoA of words was associated with level of naming impairment in bilingual speakers with probable Alzheimer's dementia within and across their languages.MethodsTwenty-six Frisian-Dutch bilinguals with mild to moderate dementia named 90 pictures in each language, employing items with rated AoA and other word variable measures matched across languages. Quantitative (totals correct) and qualitative (error types and (in)appropriate switching) aspects were measured.ResultsImpaired retrieval occurred in Frisian (Language 1) and Dutch (Language 2), with a significant effect of AoA on naming in both languages. Earlier acquired words were better preserved and retrieved. Performance was identical across languages, but better in Dutch when controlling for covariates. However, participants demonstrated more inappropriate code switching within the Frisian test setting. On qualitative analysis, no differences in overall error distribution were found between languages for early or late acquired words. There existed a significantly higher percentage of semantically than visually-related errors.ConclusionThese findings have implications for understanding problems in lexical retrieval among bilingual individuals with dementia and its relation to decline in other cognitive functions which may play a role in inappropriate code switching. We discuss the findings in the light of the close relationship between Frisian and Dutch and the pattern of usage across the life-span.

Age of Acquisition Effect on Speech Perception in Noise (SPIN): Data from heritage speakers of Korean

Age of Acquisition Effect on Speech Perception in Noise (SPIN): Data from heritage speakers of Korean

Language use affects proficiency in Italian–Spanish bilinguals irrespective of age of second language acquisition

The role of age of acquisition (AoA) in reaching native-like proficiency in second language is controversial. The existence of a critical period and the effect of AoA have been questioned by studies testing lexical and/or morphosyntactic skills, and by functional brain exploration. The aim of this study was to verify the effect of AoA and language practice on proficiency in a bilingual pragmatic task and its relationship with cognitive skills. The study involved a group of Italian–Spanish bilinguals, classified according to their AoA and language use. All participants performed a pragmatic bilingual test and a battery of cognitive tests. A multivariate analysis showed significant effects of language use and cognitive skills and a non-significant effect of AoA. These results indicate that continued language practice is a major factor influencing high bilingual proficiency, irrespective of AoA, suggesting that proficiency may be weakened when bilingual experience becomes occasional or ceases.

Age of acquisition and allophony in Spanish-English bilinguals.

This study examines age of acquisition (AoA) in Spanish-English bilinguals’ phonetic and phonological knowledge of /l/ in English and Spanish. In English, the lateral approximant /l/ varies in darkness by context [based on the second formant (F2) and the difference between F2 and the first formant (F1)], but the Spanish /l/ does not. Further, English /l/ is overall darker than Spanish /l/. Thirty-eight college-aged adults participated: 11 Early Spanish-English bilinguals who learned English before the age of 5 years, 14 Late Spanish-English bilinguals who learned English after the age of 6 years, and 13 English monolinguals. Participants’ /l/ productions were acoustically analyzed by language and context. The results revealed a Spanish-to-English phonetic influence on /l/ productions for both Early and Late bilinguals, as well as an English-to-Spanish phonological influence on the patterning of /l/ for the Late Bilinguals. These findings are discussed in terms of the Speech Learning Model and the effect of AoA on the interaction between a bilingual speaker’s two languages.

In or Out?: Spatial Scale and Enactment in Narratives of Native and Nonnative Signing Deaf Children Acquiring British Sign Language

In this study we investigate the use of spatial scale and enactment (via constructed action, or CA) in British Sign Language (BSL) narratives of deaf native and nonnative signing children aged eight to ten. We find that the two types of prototypically aligned uses of spatial scale and enactment as described in the sign language literature (i.e. use of character scale with CA, and use of observer scale without CA) occur in both the native and nonnative signing children. We find that observer scale with CA is used by the non-native signing children but not the native signing children, and the opposite pattern with character scale without CA. These findings suggest that cognitive abilities such as perspective taking and the use of spatial scale should be considered along with linguistic abilities when looking at age of acquisition effects.

The effect of age of L2 acquisition on the organization of the bilingual lexicon: Evidence from masked priming

This study investigates the role of age of acquisition (AoA) on the bilingual mental lexicon. Four groups of participants were tested: (i) English native speakers with minimal exposure to French; (ii) late English–French bilinguals; (iii) early English–French bilinguals; and (iv) simultaneous English–French bilinguals. We used a masked priming paradigm to investigate early, automatic lexical processing at the semantic level by testing both a within-language semantic condition and a cross-language translation condition. AoA was investigated both through group effects and a correlation analysis. We found significant translation priming effects for the simultaneous and early bilinguals only, and a significant correlation between AoA and translation priming effects. Due to the matched L2 proficiency of the early and late bilinguals, these results support our hypothesis that an early AoA, regardless of L2 proficiency, is crucial in order to find the L2-to-L1 priming effects that have often been elusive in recent studies.

The Effect of Age of Acquisition on Older Individuals with and without Cognitive Impairments

The present study compared the effects of age of acquisition (AoA) on object naming across groups of older individuals with cognitive impairments, healthy older controls, and young healthy controls. All participants named a set of 80 pictures, within which both AoA and frequency were manipulated orthogonally. Early-acquired objects were named faster than late-acquired objects across all groups. Response time also declined with age and with cognitive impairment between the groups. The effect of AoA differed across groups, with AoA effects being largest for the older group with cognitive impairments and smallest for the young control group. The present study adds strength to the suggestion that AoA of picture names is one of the factors that influence survival or loss of memories in dementia and cognitive decline, and this could therefore be used as a potential screening test for cognitive impairment disorders in the future.

Age of Acquisition Effects on Object Naming in Chinese Speakers with Dementia

Age of Acquisition Effects on Object Naming in Chinese Speakers with Dementia

Age-of-Acquisition Effects in Novel Picture Naming: A Laboratory Analogue

Age-of-acquisition (AoA) effects are such that early-acquired items are more quickly recognized and produced than later acquired items. In this laboratory analogue, participants were trained to name a group of Greeble pictures with a novel nonsense name. We manipulated order of acquisition of the stimuli: Half of the stimuli were presented from the onset of training (early acquired) whilst the other half were introduced later in the training schedule (late acquired). At test, when early and late stimuli had equal cumulative frequency, early stimuli were named significantly faster than late items. In a second test, it was also found that visual duration thresholds were significantly smaller for the early items when participants were asked to name the critical items. These findings support the notion that order-of-acquisition effects can be manifest over a short time span in the laboratory, and that the effect of order of acquisition is distinct from mere frequency of exposure. The findings are consistent with the idea that AoA effects occurring over a large temporal scale may be a special case of more general order-of-acquisition effects, and both may be a general property of learning mechanisms.