Effect In Poland Research Articles

Determinants and effects of Poland’s road accidents in the context of the 2030 agenda for sustainable development – poviat level analysis for the years 2010-2019

The objective of the research was to assess how selected factors influence road safety in Poland’s poviats. To that end, an analysis was conducted of road accident determinants and effects in the poviats in the years 2010-2019. The time horizon fits in with Goal 3.6. of Agenda 2030 which is to halve the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents by 2020. The article presents the results of the analysis for the following determinants: the rate of car ownership by poviat, poviat spending on transport and length of road network, and quality of road infrastructure. The research problem was to establish which of the poviats are closest to achieving Goal 3.6. of Agenda 2030 and how likely it is, and, as a consequence, which of the poviats should step up their road safety policies to align them to the targets set out in the Agenda. To identify groups of poviats sharing similar characteristics, they were grouped using the k-means method. Five groups of poviats were identified and analysed for how their road safety indicators changed between 2010 and 2019. The results of the analysis show that the highest fatality reduction (-40%) was achieved by urban poviats with the highest per capita spending on transport. The same poviats, however, have the highest increases in serious injuries (+30%). The analyses show that Polish poviats are still far from achieving Goal 3.6 of Agenda 2030. The research results presented in the article are original for the poviat level.

The President of Poland’s immunity in criminal matters

The issue analysed by the author is that of the institution of Presidential immunity pertaining to the President of the Republic of Poland, and operating in such a way that a sitting President cannot be held criminally liable before a common court for acts tantamount to offences. Inclining towards the essence of this solution and its consequences when it comes to respect for constitutional principles of legalism and equality before the law, the author at the same time seeks to assess the completeness of the provisions in effect in Poland, in so doing identifying a lack of clear directives as to how a former President (i.e. one who has left office) is to be held criminally liable. The conclusion reached by the author can be said to boil down to a recognition that the liability of a former President before Poland’s Tribunal of State for offences or crimes committed is of an accessory nature where common courts are concerned, with the condition underpinning recognition of the Tribunal’s primacy in matters of jurisdiction being the National Assembly’s adoption of a Resolution holding a former President liable constitutionally, and potentially at the same time initiating action in respect of given offences. Any lack of such a National Assembly Resolution must give rise to a particular kind of reactivation – in respect of the former President – of jurisdiction in the dispensing of justice by common courts, given the fact that one of the negative procedural premises has ceased to be non-applicable. Thus, unlike in the case of a President still holding office, the cognition of the Tribunal of State in relation to a former President is neither exclusive nor automatic. Such observations have also stimulated work by the author to develop de lege ferenda postulates regarding the subject matter, as set against the wider background of Poland’s political and constitutional system.

Sunday Trading Ban in Poland: Reflection After Three Years

Purpose: The paper examines two perspectives of shopping hours regulations, the theoretical background, and experiences from selected European countries. Particular focus is on the Sunday trading ban that took effect in Poland in 2018. It was implemented gradually over three years. However, determining the impact of the introduction of the restriction on the economy is a tough challenge, both for science and the business community. This is mainly due to dynamic economic challenges, innovations implemented in retailing, which significantly change the way services are delivered. The paper aims to provide an overview of international experience, which may help understand the possible impact of Sunday trading regulations. The theoretical discussion and international empirical evidence show that the dynamics involved in changing Sunday trading rules can work in different directions. Design/Methodology/Approach: The paper presents international experiences of shopping hours regulations and focuses on the Polish market's case study. Findings: The analysis showed that regulations on opening hours and Sunday trading ban on the economy and retail sector are mixed and uncertain. In Poland, the effects of the Sunday trading ban are not possible due to the consequences of the COVID pandemic (20202021) and additional restrictions in economic activity that were introduced. Practical Implications: Two years after introducing restrictions on Sunday trade in Poland, structural and qualitative changes in retailing are observed. The author argues that these changes will result from the COVID pandemic and the implications of innovative retail processes are to be expected soon. They will be mainly targeted at the use of online commerce, the development of unattended sales forms, and possibly reducing the importance of large-scale retail outlets. Originality/Value: The author points out that the relationship between these regulations and innovations in trade should be added to the traditional approach to the analysis of trade working hours regulation. In this sense, the article has the value of a new, original analysis..

Zawarcie przez obywatela polskiego małżeństwa per procura w Kościele łacińskim poza terytorium Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej

Artykuł dotyczy problematyki zawierania małżeństwa przez pełnomocnika poza granicami Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej przez tych katolików, którzy mają obywatelstwo polskie. Stanowi próbę odpowiedzi na pytania, czy wierni Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego, będący obywatelami polskimi, mogą zawrzeć małżeństwo przez pełnomocnika w Kościele łacińskim poza terytorium Polski oraz czy takie małżeństwo może wywoływać skutki cywilnoprawne w porządku prawa polskiego. W tym celu została przeprowadzona analiza przepisów prawa kanonicznego i prawa polskiego z uwzględnieniem prawa prywatnego międzynarodowego. W wyniku przeprowadzonych badań ustalono, że wierni Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego, będący obywatelami polskimi, mogą zawierać małżeństwo przez pełnomocnika w Kościele łacińskim poza terytorium Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Natomiast czy takie małżeństwo wywoła skutki cywilnoprawne w Polsce, będzie zależało od dopuszczalności w danym państwie zawierania małżeństwa przez pełnomocnika oraz dopełnienia wszystkich wymogów formalnych, jakie w zakresie instytucji matrimonium per procura prawo to przewidywało.

Temporal Changes of Near‐Surface Air Temperature in Poland for 1781–2016 and in Tbilisi (Georgia) for 1881–2016

AbstractAnalyses of near‐surface air temperature T in Poland for 1781–2016 and in Tbilisi (Georgia) for 1881–2016 have been carried out. We show that the centenary warming effect in Poland and in Tbilisi has almost the same peculiarities. An average centenary warming effect ΔT = (1.08 ± 0.29)°C is observed in Poland and in Tbilisi for 1881–2016. A warming effect is larger in winter season (ΔT = ~1.15°C) than in other seasons (average warming effect for these seasons ΔT = ~0.95°C). We show that a centenary warming is mainly related to the change of solar activity (estimated by sunspot number [SSN] and total solar irradiance [TSI]), particularly, a time interval about ~70 years (1890–1960), when correlation coefficients between 11‐year smoothed SSN and T, and TSI and T are high, r = 0.66 ± 0.07 and r = 0.73 ± 0.07 for Poland and r = 0.82 ± 0.05 and r = 0.90 ± 0.05 for Tbilisi, respectively; in this period solar activity contributes decisively in the global warming. We show that a global warming effect equals zero based on the temperature T data in Poland for period 1781–1880, when human activities were relatively less than in 1881–2016. We recognize a few feeble ~20 ± 3 years of disturbances in the temperature changes for period 1885–1980, most likely related with the fluctuations of solar magnetic cycles. We distinguish the fluctuations of ~7–8 years in Poland's T data, possibly connected with local effects of the North Atlantic Oscillation.

Implications of the Polish 1999 administrative reform for regional socio‐economic development

AbstractOn 1 January 1999, four major reforms took effect in Poland in the areas of health, education, pensions and local administration. After 20 years, only in the last case does the original structural design remain essentially unchanged. We examine the implications of this reform from the perspective of the distance of municipalities from their regional administrative capital. We show that despite fears of negative consequences for peripheral regions, the reform did not result in slower socio‐economic development for those municipalities that found themselves further from the new administrative centres. We argue that regional inclusiveness in the process of development is likely to be an important factor behind the stability of Poland's administrative design.

Bezpośredni skutek „dyrektywy obrończej” w polskim procesie karnym

As of 27 November 2017 the deadline passed by which the European Union Directive 2013/48/EU on the right of access to a lawyer should have been implemented by the Member States in their respective legal systems. Poland completed the said responsibility only ostensibly, for no legal norms which regulate the standard of the right to formal defence contained in Polish Code of Criminal Procedure have been amended. This very situation makes it necessary to consider whether the norms of the directive in question may cause the so-called direct effect in Poland’s domestic legal system, particularly: whether prosecuted individuals may directly invoke the directive in order to, based on its content, seek the assistance of a lawyer in the course of criminal proceedings. Therefore, it stands to reason that, at least in relation to some of the competences envisioned in the directive, such eventuality exists, whereas in remainder of the cases the judicial bodies are obliged to interpret the respective norms of the Code of Criminal Procedure in pro-EU manner, thereby elevating the standard of right to formal defence present in Polish criminal proceedings. Nonetheless, the real transposition of this directive should be postulated, since invoking its direct effect cannot exempt a Member State from implementing it in accordance with EU treaties as a way to harmonize domestic legal systems.

Implications of the Polish 1999 Administrative Reform for Regional Socio-Economic Development

On 1 January 1999, four major reforms took effect in Poland in the areas of health, education, pensions and local administration. After 20 years, only in the last case does the original structural design remain essentially unchanged. We examine the implications of this reform from the perspective of the distance of municipalities from their regional administrative capital. We show that despite fears of negative consequences for peripheral regions, the reform did not result in slower socio-economic development for those municipalities that found themselves further from the new administrative centres. We argue that regional inclusiveness in the process of development is likely to be an important factor behind the stability of Poland's administrative design.

Designated Income Accounts in Budgetary Units of Municipalities as a Form of Partially Decentralised Redistribution of Public Finance Resources Allocated to Educational Services in Poland

The Act of 27 August 2009 on public finance, which has been in effect in Poland since the beginning of 2010, has changed the rules regarding the keeping of designated income accounts by a commune’s budgetary units. The Act limited the possibility to create designated income accounts within a commune budgetary units. The right to create such accounts is restricted only to budgetary units which perform educational tasks and is an exception from the principle of full budgeting, a principle meaning that a commune’s budgetary units have to transfer all their income to the commune’s budget, and all expenses of budgetary units are covered from the commune’s budgets. In case of educational services, these public tasks are performed by the commune’s budgetary units as organizational units that are most closely linked with the commune’s budget. An exception here, which is an option at the discretion of the Commune’s Council, is to create a designated income account within the commune’s budgetary unit. The aim of the paper is to analyse and evaluate relevant legislation, judicial practice of courts and regional accounting chambers, as well as the doctrine of administrative law, in particular, educational law and public finance law regarding the scope of applicability of designated income accounts for a commune’s budgetary units that perform educational tasks. The hypothesis that the financing of such expenses through a designated income account is a special form of redistribution of public financial resources in a commune was proven correct. The implementation of this form of funding is justified by the nature of public educational services and allows for more efficient management of this part of public finance. The leading method applied in the paper was the dogmatic and legal method, supported by the empirical and analytical method (in particular with regard to the judicial practice of courts and regional accounting chambers).

The Relative Age Effect in Poland's Elite Youth Soccer Players.

The relative age effect (RAE) is related to discrimination against youth athletes born in the last quarter of the calendar year. The current study presents research on the RAE in elite youth soccer players in Poland. Players in the Central Junior League (CLJ) finals represent 0.59% of the 25,756 players under 20 years old (U20). This study analyzed the post-game protocols of the CLJ knockout stage from the 2013/2014 and 2014/2015 seasons as well as the U17-U21 teams during 2015, including only players who played on the field for at least one minute (n = 395). The results revealed the existence of RAE in the examined groups ( CLJ 2013/2014, χ23 = 15.441, p < 0.01, CLJ 2014/2015, χ23 = 20.891, p < 0.001 U17-U21, χ23 = 25.110, p < 0.001). In addition, the results differed by monthly birth distribution in the Polish population (PP) between 1995 and 1999. This study is the first to examine the RAE in youth soccer in Poland. The occurrence of the RAE with regard to the most promising youth and national team players suggests that a similar effect exists among younger age categories. To reduce the RAE related to identifying soccer talent, tools should be implemented to optimize the player-selection process, such as those that consider the biological development of a player.

The Evolvement of Online Consumer Behavior: The ROPO and Reverse ROPO Effect in Poland and Germany

Purpose: The aim of the study was to find out whether the online shopping behaviors ROPO and Reverse ROPO Effect differ between Poles and Germans.

Effects of Poland’s Pro‑Export Policy Implementation in the Context of the Plan for Responsible Development – a Preliminary Comparative Assessment

The aim of this paper is to present the results of a preliminary assessment of Poland’s export expansion policy in relation to the export of commodities, which is a result of the Government’s Plan for Responsible Development, in the context of existing barriers and the external and internal conditions reported by small and medium‑sized enterprises sector (SMEs). In the latest ranking of its competitive position in the global market for the period 2016–2017, Poland ranked 36th in the world. It should also be stressed that in this most recent world ranking Poland held the 16th position among EU Member States. A positive phenomenon in relation to Poland’s foreign trade in 2016, as compared to previous years, was that the value of export exceeded import, which allowed for a turnover surplus of nearly EUR 4.8 billion, i.e. two times higher than in 2015. In 2016 (and also in the first half of 2017) there was a favorable diversification of Polish export, demonstrating an increase in export to non‑EU markets of economically developed countries. After two years of relatively slow growth, export to this group of countries in 2016 increased by 5.6% (to EUR 12 billion), i.e. nearly 2.5 times faster than the total export. Despite the tariff‑free and quota‑free access to the single European market, there are still limits and barriers to the free movement of goods, and especially services. There are also many internal barriers in small and medium‑sized enterprises’ export to foreign markets, which limit their export expansion. Despite the gradual increase in export observed in recent years, the internationalization of non‑Polish enterprises is still much lower than in Western European countries. As a result, the share of Polish SMEs in the EU market is one third smaller than the EU average.

DOZÓR ELEKTRONICZNY

Electronic MonitoringSummaryThe main reason for bringing up the idea of electronic monitoring program is not only the bill submitted by a group of members of parliament, but also its advantages for offenders and the society.The concept of electronic monitoring of offenders, first conceived by an American psychologist, Dr. Robert Schweitzgebel in the 1960s, has been developed and implemented in many countries (USA, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, South Africa, Sweden and Holland.) Programs based on electronic monitoring provide offenders with a more human contact and give opportunities for rehabilitation and reintegration. Electronic monitoring can be used on a number of offenders and suspect groups and situations, including pre-trial defendants, defendants on a conditional release and convicts on probation, parole or house arrest. Electronic monitoring also seems to be an efficient way to keep the budgets under control.The article presents the main problems connected with the idea of electronic monitoring, such as: technical and criminological aspects, aspects related to human rights - the right to privacy, the right to equality - influence on the offender’s family, chances to avoid negative consequences of incarceration. It is certain that bringing electronic monitoring program into effect in Poland should be preceded by a thorough analysis of programs already introduced in other countries - that is why the article tries to compare and contrast programs effective in some of the countries (United Kingdom, Germany, United States, Australia). Furthermore the article presents opinions on the electronic monitoring expressed by Polish probation officers and penal judges as well as their hopes and anxieties.

Foreigners in Polish prisons. The law and practice of taking into account cultural differences

Polish executive law allows for the possibility of implementing an individualised approach to imprisonment in a system encompassing programmed, therapeutic or normal rehabilitation. Polish laws take into full account the Convention's standards on the prohibition of torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1984 and the European Prison Rules issued by the Council of Europe. There are no specific provisions in Polish legislation relating to the imprisonment of foreigners, however, the guarantees of respect for dignity and cultural distinctiveness arise directly from the general principles for imprisonment. The number of foreigners incarcerated in Polish prisons is small. Every year, approximately 7,000 foreigners are convicted in Poland. Of this group, on average, 300 are servinga prison sentence. In this article we will outline the characteristics of this group of convicted criminals based on the available statistical data and in relation to the regulations in effect in Poland.

The socio-economic effects of Poland’s membership in the European Union and the challenges of the middle-income trap

The socio-economic effects of Poland’s membership in the European Union and the challenges of the middle-income trap

Contractual Satisfaction: The Polish and Tanzanian Perspectives

Purpose: Interfirm satisfaction has been studied at the aggregate level, which has limited use in terms of understanding specific dimensions. Contractual satisfaction relates to the specific level of analyzing interfirm satisfaction. This study contributes towards understanding contractual satisfaction and the contextual nature of the concept. To achieve the latter, two heterogeneous emerging markets were used (Poland and Tanzania). Methodology: The study was conducted in Poland and Tanzania, focusing on manufacturing firms. The sample included 201 Polish firms and 240 Tanzanian firms. Findings: The major findings suggest that ex ante costs and ex post specifications have a significant positive effect on contractual satisfaction, with a stronger effect in Poland. Behavioral uncertainty has a significant moderating effect on these two constructs in Tanzania but not in Poland, whereas the moderating effect of trust is found to be significantly positive in Poland but negative in Tanzania. Research Implications: The nature of markets and institutions has an influence on business to business relations. Practical Implications: Contractual satisfaction is not homogeneous across markets; managers should pay attention to specific contextual factors such as institutions and the stage they are at in their transformation. Originality: The study looks specifically at contractual satisfaction and extends the contractual governance literature by considering heterogeneous emerging markets.

Formal and legal aspects of the forest landscape design in Poland

In the article possibilities of forest designing established on the basis of results of analyses of legal documents (acts and regulations) being in effect in Poland concerning spatial planning, nature conservation and forestry were presented. Achieved results allow to state, that issues concerning landscape approach are becoming more and more important in the realization of principles of the forest management led in Poland. In forests, amongst action associated with the necessity of the landscape protection, management and planning a need of reconstruction of tree stands, keeping all open areas in a natural or near-natural extent, limiting the area of total fellings, increasing the species diversity of ecotones are named. And so the possibilities of landscape design concern mainly culture and management aspects. Simultaneously a lack of many significant references to the scope of applied solutions in the area of forestry engineering was observed.

The Harber-Laursen-Metzler effect in Poland

The aim of the paper is to analyse of the Harberger-Laursen-Metzler effect in light of the theory and in practice, with particular reference to this effect in Poland in the period 1995-2009. The results of research carried out by means of the vector autoregression model (VAR) revealed that temporary improvement in terms of trade in Poland led to the current account improvement, and permanent improvement in terms of trade contributed to the current account deterioration. Thus it was confirmed prevalence of the Harberger-Laursen-Metzler effect in Poland. Additionally, results of investigation confirmed relatively greater impact of temporary changes in terms of trade on the current account than in the case of permanent changes in terms of trade. Analogous interdependence was revealed witch reference to explanation of the current account variability. Temporary changes in terms of trade accounted for in much more degree the current account variability in relation to permanent changes in terms of trade.

Financial burden of drug expenditures in Poland

ObjectivesThis paper investigates the level of catastrophic out-of-pocket pharmaceutical (OOP) expenditures and their impoverishment effect in Poland. MethodsWe use data from a representative sample of Polish households covering 2000, 2003, 2005, 2007 and 2009. We estimate the incidence and intensity of catastrophic drug expenditure and its impoverishment effects using the methods introduced by Wagstaff and van Doorslaer. We obtain estimates for the full population and for the subsample of retired and chronically ill. ResultsThe incidence and intensity of catastrophic drug expenditures increased over the years and they are concentrated among the poor. The proportion of households that spent at least 10% of their income on pharmaceuticals reached 18% in 2009. This figure is higher than the evidence found in other countries for total health expenditure. Pharmaceutical expenditures increased poverty rates, and the evidence suggests that the poverty impact of OOP expenditures in the last decade was mainly driven by poor people becoming poorer. The effects are more conspicuous among the retired and chronically ill. ConclusionsOur findings indicate that OOP pharmaceutical expenditures in Poland are a severe financial burden and that policies aimed at both lowering the price of effective drugs and decreasing consumption of the ineffective ones are needed.

The Impact of Poland's EU Accession on its Economy

The paper briefly discusses the main economic developments in Poland since its accession to the EU in May 2004 and sees how they relate to the regulatory environment and policies which the EU imposes on the member states. The paper starts with a brief description of principles, legislation and policies adopted in the EU, which influence the decisions made by the government, as well as entrepreneurs, investors, companies and workers. Next it discusses outcomes that were anticipated to occur as a result of the 2004 accession. Economic developments in Poland in two years of EU membership are presented in the last section. It starts with the macroeconomic performance, including economic growth and nominal convergence. The effects of Poland's participation in the single market on Polish trade (goods and services flows), capital flows (foreign direct investments - FDI), and labor flows (and specifically migration to the EU-15) are also discussed. The size and destination of EU funds committed to Poland are presented. The final paragraph confronts the factual results of the economic processes, highlighting the public's perception of Poland's accession and their assessment of the outcomes both for their country and for themselves as individuals. Even though the paper concerns the recent period of 2004-2006 there are frequent references to developments that took place in Poland in the pre-accession period. This is because the country's integration into the EU economy was a gradual and lengthy process which had formally been initiated in December 16, 1991 when Poland and the EU signed the Europe Agreement.