Language Education Policy Research Articles

Tracing the History: Language Education Policy and Emergent Bilingual Learners in the United States

Since the passage of the 1968 Bilingual Education Act, the meaning, function, and connotation of bilingual education in the United States have undergone significant changes. In this article, the author outlines the evolution of U.S. language education policies for emergent bilingual learners since the 19th century. In particular, the article demonstrates the major waves and shifts of language education policies that either support or oppress the linguistic rights of language minoritized students, and captures how the changing social, political, and economic climate has shaped the nation’s response to language diversity. Importantly, reviewing the historical evolution of language policies not only echoes the importance of policy decisions in impacting bilingual students’ educational trajectories, but also informs future policy decisions in order to disrupt deficit positioning of bilingual communities.

Breaking Down Walls: Challenges in Teaching English to School Level Students

This paper addresses the challenges associated with English language instruction in rural schools of India. The language policy in school education poses both societal and individual hurdles. The prevailing quality of English language education in many Indian schools is concerning, with issues such as teacher proficiency, access to language resources, and instructional materials being primary concerns. Rural students face particularly arduous circumstances, lacking the resources and opportunities available to their urban counterparts, such as language labs and audio-visual aids. English is often perceived as a subject rather than a language by rural students, hindering their engagement and proficiency. Many students approach English studies solely for examination purposes, focusing on rote memorization rather than genuine language acquisition. This fear of English is compounded by the limited vision of some teachers, who prioritize exam results over long-term student development. Key Words: Rural, proficiency, circumstances, acquisition, resources memorization

Ideologies of teachers and students towards meso-level English-medium instruction policy and translanguaging in the STEM classroom at a Malaysian university

Abstract English medium instruction (EMI) as a language policy in higher education is based on monolingual conceptions and limits the use of the full linguistic repertoire of bilinguals/multilinguals in the university classroom. Informed by the constructs of language ideology (Spolsky, Bernard. 2009. Language management. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press), translanguaging (Li, Wei. 2018. Translanguaging as a practical theory of language. Applied Linguistics 39(1). 9–30) and pedagogical translanguaging (Creese, Angela & Adrian Blackledge. 2010. Translanguaging in the bilingual classroom: A pedagogy for learning and teaching? The Modern Language Journal 94(1). 103–115), this case study aimed to examine the ideologies held by micro-level stakeholders (i.e., teachers and students) towards institutional English-only EMI policy, translanguaging, and the significance and scope of pedagogical translanguaging in EMI classrooms. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with six teachers and 10 students at a public research university in Malaysia. Also collected were a variety of publicly accessible institutional documents, including the focal university’s programme brochures, promotional materials and policy statements on its website. Analyses of the interviews and documents revealed that although EMI was officially adopted in the programmes, both teachers and students advocated for translanguaging and underscored its important role in the transmission of new information, effective communication, and scientific meaning-making. In light of these findings, the study concludes that an inclusive language policy is required that allows teachers and students to access all their linguistic resources.

Learners’ and teachers’ perspectives on the use of code switching in Geography teaching and learning

Language of instruction stands as a crucial element in fostering learners’ comprehension of any subject matter. Prior studies indicate that learners’ limited proficiency in the English language is among the factors influencing their performance in Geography. The present study delved into the impact of code switching in the domain of Lesotho’s geography education, drawing insights from both learners’ and teachers’ viewpoints. Drawing on Hoffmann’s theory of code switching, the study employed explanatory sequential mixed method research design, which involved classroom observations, focus-group interviews as well as in-depth interviews with grade 10 learners and teachers respectively. Findings indicate that code switching in geography education improves learners’ comprehension by improving their proficiency in subject-specific terminology. However, an over-reliance on code switching must be avoided as learners can lose their ability to employ geography vocabulary. This study suggests that the Lesotho Education Language Policy could be revised to include the selective use of mother tongues in teaching and learning.

A Review on Foreign Language Education Policies in China from 1949 to 2023

This paper reviews on the topic of foreign language education policies in China from 1949 to 2023. It mainly focuses on English and Russian. In this paper, the timeline is separated by three important timepoint. The first important section is in 1949. As the People's Republic of China came into being, complicated and convoluted foreign language education policies in China started to emerge. The second important section is in 1978. In this year, Chinese government launched the famous national strategy of reform and opening up, and thus many changes in Chinese foreign language education policy happened. The third important section is in 2021, and in this year, Chinese government launched the Double Reduction Policy. This is a policy aiming to alleviate students' homework burden and off campus training burden in the compulsory educational stage. This policy uses various kinds of measures to reduce students' burden in academic learning, help families who cannot afford luxurious after-class tutoring fee, and enable children to have more time and space needed for all round development. In general, this paper concludes the development of foreign language education policies in China from 1949 to 2023 and gives some points in economic and historical effects to English and Russian learning during this historical process.

How do teachers perceive translanguaging? Teachers’ perceptions about translanguaging practices in the EFL classroom

The study of translanguaging as pedagogy, which challenges the monolingual approach to language education policy, has become an important aspect of investigation in recent years. However, translanguaging is challenged by recent data showing that teachers have ambivalent feelings and attitudes towards translanguaging practices and the evidence on teachers’ perceptions of the pedagogical approach in EFL teaching contexts in Indonesia is currently inconclusive. Therefore, our purpose was to describe how EFL teachers perceive translanguaging as pedagogy in the EFL classroom, which was conducted through a descriptive/interpretative approach. A questionnaire was used to collect data which were analyzed through both quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis. The findings indicate that teachers appear to have ambivalent perceptions of translanguaging. Some hold the view that EFL should be taught monolingually, while the others accept translanguaging practices. However, those who have a negative perception of translanguaging also see that the pedagogical approach is important in their EFL classes. The limitations and implications of the study’s findings for EFL education in Indonesia are also discussed.

A Study on the Impact of the “Seven-Year Planning Outline for Foreign Language Education” on Foreign Language Education in China

The implementation of the “Seven-Year Planning Outline for Foreign Language Education” has ushered in new development opportunities for foreign language education in China and made positive contributions to cultivating well-rounded foreign language talents and promoting international exchanges and cooperation among countries. This paper analyzes the planning outline to probe into its function, status, and impact in the field of foreign language education in China, in a bid to clarify the importance of formulating reasonable language education policies and plans. It reflects upon China’s English education policies and planning in the context of the current era so as to provide relevant experience and enlightenment for the development of foreign language education in China.

European Union politicians debating European language education policy

The European Union’s (EU) high regard for multilingualism and linguistic diversity is expressed through its language education policy (LEP), a policy adopted by the European Parliament, which represents all EU member states. However, as education falls within the remit of the member states, EU LEP has an advisory function only. Support for the LEP at national level is thus crucial. By analysing a significant parliamentary discussion by Members of the European Parliament (MEPs), this article asks what evidence there is that MEPs support the EU’s goals of learning the mother tongue plus two foreign languages (1+2), and of learning a diversity of languages at school. Secondly, the article investigates current evidence of the success of EU LEP in terms of developing dual language capacities, and of maintaining diversity in language learning. Figures on the learning of two languages, on the learning of English, and on linguistic diversity are compared, covering the last decade. The results reveal that although the training of dual linguists has stagnated, no MEP expressed concerns that the EU goals of 1+2 are not being met. MEPs are, however, concerned with protecting ‘their’ national languages, and the smaller ‘their’ own language(s), the more so. Furthermore, only representatives of large EU languages express concern over English dominance in the EU’s education systems. Thus, parliamentary representatives of smaller languages unite in solidarity for greater status recognition of their language, while MEPs’ support for the EU LEP goal of 1+2 is at best patchy. The article concludes that, given the limited remit of EU LEP, discrepancies between European recommendations and national practices are somewhat inevitable, and that to improve on the 1+2 goal and counter English dominance across education systems in the EU, member states need to be better supported to appreciate and disseminate the rationales for dual language learning (1+2) and diversity in language learning.

European foreign language policies, national language testing and ambivalence towards the introduction of the logics of standardisation

Educational policies and priorities shaped at the supranational level by European and global agencies and players impact the processes of national policymaking in complex ways. In this study, recontextualisations of European foreign language education and language assessment policies in the Greek policy and pedagogical contexts are examined. Specifically, the politics of foreign language education and assessment are explored with a focus on English language teaching in public schools and the expected introduction of the Greek National Certificate of Language Proficiency (known as KPG) which is a state-led testing system formed by adopting the six-level scale of the Common European Framework of Reference for languages. Drawing on Bernstein’s theory of symbolic control and pedagogic discourse, it is shown that extensive recontextualisations of European (and global) discourses on English language teaching and assessment in the Greek context project competency and outcome-based curricula and learning as the desirable pedagogic model. Furthermore, attempts to introduce certification procedures in public schools derive from market-driven discourses that sanction a standardised system of student performance while the implications of standardisation for schools, teachers and students alike are downplayed.

Pathways to Biliteracy: Investigating the Implementation of the Seal of Biliteracy in Elementary and Secondary Schools in Chicago

The Seal of Biliteracy (SoBL) is a language education policy adopted by states to recognize students’ biliteracy. Originally implemented in high schools to recognize graduating seniors, the initiative also includes pathway awards, which can be implemented in earlier grades to promote lengthier language study and increase biliteracy attainment. This qualitative case study investigates the K-12 implementation of SoBL and pathway recognitions in the urban-intensive context of the Chicago Public Schools. Drawing from documentation and interviews with district- and school-level stakeholders, this research uncovers the nuanced policy work to promote, assess, and recognize biliteracy in a district with 322,000 students.

Fluency in Language Assessment Literacy: A Literature Review

Fluency in Language Assessment Literacy (LAL) is increasingly recognized as a crucial competency for language teachers and learners alike. This literature review explores the concept of Language Assessment Literacy, its theoretical underpinnings, and its implications for language teaching and learning. The review delves into the role of assessment literacy in language education, highlighting its impact on teaching practices, learning outcomes, and student motivation. Additionally, it examines strategies for developing and enhancing assessment literacy among language educators, including training programs and professional development initiatives. Furthermore, the review identifies current trends and future directions in language assessment literacy research, emphasizing the need for continued efforts to promote assessment literacy in language education practice and policy. Overall, this review underscores the importance of fluency in LAL and calls for concerted action to foster its development among language educators and learners.

Research on Kyrgyz International Chinese Language Education Policy Under the Belt and Road Initiative

Please refer to the URL that includes this article for the abstract.

The Global Impact of CEFR in Higher Education: A Case Study in Kazakhstan and Insights from a Pedagogical Experiment

The article explores the transformative impact of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) on global language pedagogy, with a particular focus on its implications for higher education and its application in Kazakhstan. Introduced by the Council of Europe in the early 2000s, the CEFR offers a comprehensive framework for language teaching, learning, and assessment, spanning six competency levels from A1 to C2. Its widespread adoption has reshaped language education policies and practices worldwide, emphasizing communication skills across reading, writing, speaking, and listening. The study investigates the evolution of the CEFR and its integration into higher education systems, examining its influence in countries such as the UK, Germany, France, and Canada. Notably, Kazakhstan has embraced the CEFR as a guiding framework for language instruction, aiming to enhance graduates’ employability in the international job market. Additionally, the article presents findings from a pedagogical experiment conducted at a Kazakhstani university, assessing the effectiveness of CEFR-aligned speaking assessment criteria in improving students’ proficiency. The study employs a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative data analysis with qualitative student feedback, highlighting the positive impact of aligning teaching strategies with the CEFR. Overall, the research contributes valuable insights into the practical application of the CEFR in Kazakhstani higher education and its broader implications for language instruction worldwide. Keywords: CEFR, higher education system, teaching methods, assessment criteria, student feedback, survey.

Eric E. Ekembe, Lauren Harvey and Eric Dwyer (eds): Interface between English Language Education Policies and Practice: Examples from Various Contexts

Eric E. Ekembe, Lauren Harvey and Eric Dwyer (eds): Interface between English Language Education Policies and Practice: Examples from Various Contexts

“Puro English and a little bit of Spanish”: Bi/multilingual kindergarteners’ language ideologies in a dual language bilingual class during the COVID-19 pandemic

Aims: The goal of the study is to examine bi/multilingual children’s language beliefs and their contributions to school and family language policies in a two-way dual language bilingual education (DLBE) program in the United States while participating in online schooling from home. Methodology: We report from a larger critical ethnographic study with a Title I K-8 school in Arizona. The data for this study are based on ethnographic fieldwork during the 2020–2021 academic year with a DLBE kindergarten cohort. Data and analysis: We conducted semi-weekly class observations and individual semi-structured interviews with 12 bi/multilingual kindergarten children. Data analysis entailed a multi-step thematic analysis through several rounds of focused coding. Findings: Our findings show that the children were deeply aware of the languages they spoke, their proficiency in each, how they chose to express those proficiencies, and the way they identified with each language. We identify ways that children agentively used language to transcend separative language policies by using language fluidly. Originality: The study contributes to the literature on young children’s language policymaking and their reproductive and resistive forms of agency. Our child participants were 5 and 6 years old, an underrepresented age in research that connects school and family language policies. Furthermore, this group’s linguistic, racial-ethnic, and cultural diversity allows for a deeper glimpse into how bi/multilingual children develop complex identities. Implications: The study has implications for the importance of pedagogical and linguistic flexibility with young children in DLBE programs. The study shows the importance of how young bi/multilingual children respond to the processes of implementing a program by highlighting the role and position of each language in their home and school environments.

On language ideology and education policies: A conversation with Thomas Ricento

Dr. Thomas K. Ricento is a professor emeritus of education at the Werklund School of Education at the University of Calgary in Canada. In 1987, he received his PhD degree in applied linguistics from the University of California, Los Angeles. Around his research interest in language policies in the context of minority languages in North America, he has conducted numerous international projects. He is the editor of the foundational reference work An introduction to language policy: Theory and method. Also, he is the author of the recent book Refugees in Canada: On the loss of social and cultural capital and has numerous books published in international venues. He has co-edited special issues in well-established journals such as TESOL Quarterly and Language Policy. Furthermore, his articles appeared in venues such as Journal of Sociolinguistics, Discourse & Society, and Journal of Language, Identity & Education. On 17 April 2023, Dr. Huseyin Uysal conducted this interview with Dr. Ricento virtually. Later, he transcribed the recorded audio and edited the text to maximize the readability.

The Changes of Foreign Language Education Policies in Chinese Higher Education From 1949 To 1977

Since the reconstruction of China after the serious destruction caused by long-lasting wars, many aspects of Chinese society are influenced greatly including the education aspect. Specifically, the foreign language education field is also under great impact of many factors in terms of political and diplomatic aspects. This paper reviews the foreign language education policies (FLEP) in Chinese higher education at the beginning of the foundation of new China. This review is divided into four parts: the explanation of the study’s background and significance, an introduction of theoretical basis, a detailed inspection of specific foreign language education policies and some influencing factors, followed by some conclusions including some possible suggestions from the previous analysis and review. From the review of former studies and the analysis of some specific FLEP, an overall conclusion will be drawn. FLEP in Chinese higher education has not been researched in a comprehensive way, especially in the first three decades. This review aims to detect the changing trend of FLEP in the given period and some factors from both domestic and international environments, which hopes to offer some inspiration to the related subjects.

Toward inclusive leadership in meeting linguistic and cultural diversity in language education policy: “not giving up on parents and children”

ABSTRACT The study explores the practices of inclusive educational leadership of local policy makers in a city with a high level of linguistic and cultural diversity (LCD), during a process of policy change. The LCD of the city poses many challenges to managing preschool education. To rethink language ideology toward welcoming LCD, the city’s policymakers adopted an inclusive leadership framework and initiated an inclusive forum comprising policymakers from diverse cultural and professional backgrounds. The study focused on the change process, from an ethnographic perspective, with triangulation of data sources. It involved focus-group discussions, individual interviews with policymakers and classroom observations. The analysis revealed that collective agency enactment was characterized by critical reflections on past professional and personal experience; planning of changes in language education policy; high level of commitment to preschool pedagogical staffs and LCD families; practical steps in facing challenges of LCD classrooms; and future visions and long-term expectations from engagement in the stream of change. The study’s significance is in theoretical and practical understanding of policymakers’ collective agency and their role in creating an inclusive community.

Linguistic diversity in transition: Shifting language orientations in the Swedish ECEC curricula

This article explores the dominant language orientations within the Swedish national curricula for early childhood education and care (ECEC), with a focus on multilingualism, an approach traditionally embraced in Sweden but recently under strain. Through documentary analysis of relevant policy documents over a period of 30 years, the research utilizes Ruíz’ (1984) analytical framework that identifies three orientations towards language in education policies: language-as-a-right, language-as-a-problem, and language-as-a-resource. The findings indicate first that language is seen as a positive resource, and multilingualism has been consistently embedded in curricular policy discourses even though there are shifts in the presence and emphasis of such discourses across time. Second, the differences in how much value is placed on diverse languages used in preschools, and their perceived associated functions, reflect changes in educational and social goals of ECEC. Finally, the findings identify a general shift in policies towards the prioritisation of competence development and Swedish language proficiency for future educational, social, and economic purposes. The article argues for a more comprehensive language policy approach and a policy orientation that helps preschool teachers to value and support multilingualism.

Disentangling the complexities of English language education policies in diverse contexts: A comparative study

This ecologically framed study highlights the complexities of English language education (ELE) policy making in Indonesia, Spain, and Thailand. The primary objectives are, first, to disentangle the complex influences that may have shaped the English language policies in the three contexts through an ecological lens, and second, to compare the crucial elements in their ELE policy making. Using an analytical model consisting of global, supranational, national, sub-national, and pedagogical influences, we conducted a thematic analysis on 18 documents selected for the purpose. The results identified both similarities and differences in the shaping influences of the ELE policies in the three contexts. This demonstrates that ELE policy is shaped by the nation’s unique characteristics. To improve the applicability of ELE policies, therefore, policymakers need to address the influences particular to the context and to be cautious when adopting or adapting policies deriving from other contexts, as there will never be a one-fit-for-all ELE policy.