Language Education Policy Research Articles

In Conversation: Mother Tongue Education and Civic Engagement amongst Ga Youth

The role of language in education policies and the importance of civic engagement are well documented. What is less clear is how they converse with one another to inform how to develop active citizens who are empowered in their mother tongues. Building on a conceptual framework of civic engagement and linguistic injustice, this article asks: After the implementation of the 1971–1994 and 2004 medium of instruction education policies in Ghana, what language did Ga youth learn in, in practice? What are the intersections between Ga youths’ relationship to language and civic engagement participation? Together, these questions inform understanding of youth educational experiences, Ga people’s perception of the vitality of their language, and their responsibility to the community. In interviewing 22 Ga people in Ghana during the summer of 2022, I find that despite policy encouraging mother tongue instruction, most participants learned in English during primary school. Additionally, contrary to the notion that there is a disinterest in civic engagement amongst Ghanaian youth, findings show Ga youth find part of their civic responsibility to lie in passing on the Ga language to preserve their culture, land, identity, and the future of their community.

Using English to Realize “the Chinese dream”: the political-economic ideology of language planning in China

ABSTRACT This paper examines how “the Chinese Dream of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation” as a state’s ideology has influenced the global spread of English in China and how the political economy of this ideology has affected the state’s foreign language planning. To do so, it investigates two recently promulgated foreign language education policy documents, namely, the 2017 version of the English Curriculum Standards at the senior secondary education level and the 2022 version of the English Curriculum Standards at the compulsory education level. These documents were drafted, implemented and revised over the past decade, along with the advocacy of the fulfilment of the Chinese Dream. Through the lens of the global political economy and drawing upon the perspective of the modern world system, this paper uncovers the different layers of this state ideology towards global English and English learning over the past decade in relation to the evolving political and economic contexts of China on the international stage. It will also reveal, more broadly, how state ideologies towards English may evolve in contestations for economic and political power in the modern world system and how they could affect language planning.

Transition space: navigating dilemmas between mainstream and minority language classrooms

Abstract From policymaking to classroom practices, educational language policy implementation is a complex process filled with a cacophony of voices. This article examines policy implementation as it unfolds in micro-level transitions between mainstream classrooms and lessons in Sámi, Kven, or Finnish as a second language (SKF) in Norway. In such situations, SKF pupils need to leave their mainstream classes to receive their language instruction. To examine these transitions, I draw primarily from ethnographic data (e.g., classroom observations and semi-structured interviews) collected over several months in public schools in a town in Northern Norway. The findings suggest that organizational circumstances construct an in-between space, which I refer to as transition space, in which classroom actors can or need to negotiate and make choices about which of the theoretically co-available classes/activities will be chosen at which times. Such choices involve dilemmas and consequences on different scales. In this study, (1) I demonstrate how (non)movements between mainstream and SKF classes are made in time and space, and (2) I propose transition space as a new conceptualization for researching micro-level transitions in educational settings.

A tale of two languages: charting Chinese parents’ beliefs about and engagement with Chinese and English language learning

ABSTRACT This study investigates Chinese parental beliefs about and engagement with their children’s Chinese and English language learning in Yinchuan, China, utilizing the theory of planned behaviour as an analytical framework and a mixed-methods approach. Quantitative data from 879 parents reveals a strong preference for Chinese language education based on its perceived utility, cultural identity, and socioeconomic returns, contrasting with an ambivalent stance towards English. Qualitative insights highlight the influences of nationalism, anti-Western sentiments, and the COVID-19 pandemic on parental attitudes. These findings underscore the dominance of top-down language policies and societal expectations in shaping parental choices, often leading to contradictions between expressed attitudes and realized engagement. Perceived behavioural control emerges as a critical factor, with parents navigating challenges such as resource limitations, policy instability, and the dynamics of child autonomy. This study offers valuable insights into the evolving landscape of parental involvement and the factors shaping language learning priorities, thus contributing to the growing body of literature on language education in China. These findings can inform language education policies and practices, emphasizing the need for accessible home-based resources, cultural understanding, and open dialogue to support effective and equitable language learning outcomes for Chinese children.

Crossing the frontier from oral to written translanguaging for epistemic access in natural science

Background: South Africa’s Language-in-Education Policy (LiEP) provides for bi/multilingual education, but schools are only supported to choose monolingual English language policies from Grade 4 and ignore the learners’ home language or languages as resources for learning. Many teachers translanguage orally, using the learners’ home language and English to make learning more meaningful but seldom extend this to written translanguaging.Objectives: Research was conducted to document the process and effects of a teacher development project, translanguaging-for-learning (L4L) which supported teachers in developing translanguaging pedagogies to improve learner access to the curriculum and to develop academic bi-literacy.Method: This article focuses on the development of one senior phase (Grades 7–9) natural science teacher who participated in the L4L project. Data were collected following an ethnographic approach in workshops and classrooms through observation, interviews, photos, videos, and learners’ workbooks.Results: The research illustrates how with workshop engagement, mentoring support and the provision of multilingual dictionaries, a teacher’s bi/multilingual languaging skills were legitimised and mobilised to engage learners in knowledge construction, both orally and in writing. Classroom interaction shifted from being teacher-led to being more learner-centred and bilingual, providing opportunities for biliteracy, and identity affirmation.Conclusion: The findings illustrate improved learning opportunities through planned, systematic translanguaging pedagogies.Contribution: The research suggests a model for bi/multilingual education and teacher development that recognises African languages as important resources for learning to further linguistic equity, access, and social justice.

Reverse Transfer in Chinese Adolescents: Implications for Language and Cultural Identity Preservation

This literature review examines the phenomenon of reverse transfer (RT) among Chinese adolescents, focusing on its implications for the preservation of their mother tongue and cultural identity. Reverse transfer, a subtype of cross-linguistic influence (CLI), occurs when a later-acquired language affects an earlier one, challenging the traditional view of language learning as unidirectional. The study of RT is particularly pertinent for Chinese adolescents, who are often exposed to multiple languages due to globalization and educational policies, potentially impacting their linguistic and cultural heritage. This article employs the method of a formal literature review. The review synthesizes recent research on RT among Chinese adolescents, with a focus on how additional languages, particularly English, influence their Mandarin proficiency. Findings suggest English has had a significant impact on the mother tongue of Chinese adolescents. Moreover, RT’s impact extends to cultural identity, with some adolescents navigating multicultural spaces effectively, while others experience cultural dissonance, suggesting RT’s role in shaping cultural self-perception and connections to Chinese heritage. The paper underscores the complexity of RT’s effects on language and cultural identity, highlighting the need for educational practices that support multilingual development without compromising the mother tongue. It concludes with a call for longitudinal studies to explore the long-term effects of RT on language and cultural identity among Chinese adolescents, aiming to inform language education and cultural preservation policies.

Pengaruh Tiktok Terhadap Perkembangan Bahasa di Kalangan Generasi Alpha

This study explores the influence of TikTok on the language development of Generation Alpha in Indonesia, a generation born after 2010 and raised in a digital environment. Using a qualitative descriptive approach, this research employs in-depth interviews, observation, and content analysis to examine how TikTok affects vocabulary, the emergence of new terms, and communication patterns. The findings reveal that TikTok contributes to the rise of neologisms and slang terms such as "rizz," "brainrot," and "sigma," which have quickly spread among Generation Alpha. This trend enriches vocabulary while also driving changes in formal language norms, although concerns remain regarding a decline in formal language proficiency. This study provides insights into the dynamics of language in the digital age and its implications for language education policy

Dr. Ling-Chi Wang reflections on Lau v. Nichols (1974): Bilingual education, language rights, and political activism

ABSTRACT Born in Xiamen, China in 1938, Dr. Ling-Chi Wang was the founder of Chinese for Affirmative Action, an organization focused on affirmative action in employment, representation of the Chinese in politics, voting, and language rights. He is also a Professor Emeritus of Asian American Studies at the University of California Berkeley. Ling-Chi established the Asian American Studies program at Berkeley, teaching its first course in 1969. In this paper, Ling-Chi shares his perspectives on the long history of Chinese discrimination dating back to the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) and his years as a political activist during the 1960s to the present in San Francisco’s Chinatown. His role in community organizing was pivotal in the events leading up to this pivotal U.S. Supreme Court case. Ling Chi’s reflections on activism and linguistic justice documents his imprint on the this language rights case that has shaped US educational language policies for the last fifty years.

The Norwegian language policy in higher education: an evaluation of policy design

ABSTRACT This article evaluates the design of the official language policy of the Norwegian government in the field of higher education, which was set out in two white papers in 2008 and 2020. The language policy aims to avoid domain loss of the Norwegian language and thus keep it ‘complete' and able to function as a unifying factor in society. In the two white papers, however, the logic of collective action in language policy is not explicit. We adopt a theoretical approach based on public policy evaluation to reconstruct the language policy's internal logic of action (i.e. its ‘programme theory' or ‘theory of change’). Secondly, we assess the validity of the assumptions underlying the programme theory of the two white papers in light of the criteria of plausibility, feasibility, and testability. The results show that most of the measures included in the 2008 language policy are not supported by a valid programme theory. By contrast, most of the measures in the 2020 language policy are based on a valid theory of change although several weaknesses persist. This article contributes to research on the evaluation of language policies by focusing on a relatively unexplored aspect, i.e., the evaluation of policy design.

The Impact of Multilingualism on Second Language Acquisition: A Study of Cognitive and Linguistic Proficiency Among Ethnic Minority Groups

This study investigates the cognitive and linguistic differences in second language acquisition (SLA) among multilingual H'mong and Tay students compared to monolingual Kinh students in Vietnam. Using a mixed-methods approach, the study examined cognitive proficiency, including working memory and cognitive flexibility, as well as linguistic proficiency in English, focusing on vocabulary size, syntactic knowledge, and phonological accuracy. Quantitative data from cognitive and linguistic tests were analyzed using MANOVA, while qualitative data from focus group discussions provided insights into the sociocultural influences on language learning. The findings reveal that H'mong and Tay students exhibited higher cognitive proficiency, particularly in working memory and cognitive flexibility, than their monolingual Kinh peers. However, despite their cognitive advantages, multilingual students faced greater challenges in English vocabulary acquisition, syntax, and phonological accuracy, likely due to structural differences between their native languages and English. The qualitative findings highlight the role of sociocultural factors, including limited access to resources and the desire to maintain cultural identity, in shaping language learning experiences among ethnic minority students. The study concludes that while multilingualism enhances cognitive abilities, ethnic minority students require targeted instructional support to overcome linguistic barriers in SLA. The findings have implications for language education policies, particularly in designing culturally sensitive curricula and improving access to quality English education in rural and ethnic minority communities.

Decolonizing Language in Education Policies of Nepal

Nepal has never been formally colonized; however, it struggles with the intricate effects of both internal and foreign linguistic colonialism, which has resulted in the marginalization of several indigenous languages in the formal educational system. The present paper explores how language education policies are changing in Nepal, a country with a wide variety of languages. This qualitative study used phenomenology as a research method and purposively selected four government aided school teachers as participants. Tool for data collection was interview and the findings showed that English is a dominant language in education policy though the constitution of Nepal allows mother tongue or national language i. e. Nepali to be the medium of instruction in the government schools. The study explored the expanding decolonization movement in language in education policy, led by communities, educators, and grassroots activists. The goal of this movement is to establish a more fair and inclusive learning environment from supporting the acknowledgement and integration of indigenous languages in formal education. The paper explored the historical mechanisms of linguistic colonialism in the educational system, examining the prioritization of dominant languages over indigenous languages and the resultant exclusion of the latter. The study concludes by outlining the current changes being made to Nepal’s language education regulations and highlighting the importance of linguistic inclusion as a driver of social cohesion and cultural preservation. By providing insights into the problems and possibilities of incorporating indigenous languages into formal educational systems, the research adds to the larger conversation on decolonizing education.

Effects of Language Policies of Nigeria and South Africa on Linguistic Diversity and Classification of Indigenous Languages

This study investigated the effects of language policies implemented in Nigeria and South Africa on linguistic diversity and how these two nations categorized their indigenous languages. In this present study, qualitative research methodology was used, and a purposive sampling method was used to select Nigeria’s 2013 Language Policy from the National Policy of Education and South Africa’s 1996 Language in Education Policy. Thematic analysis was carried out using Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) software which is a topic modeling methodology that assists in identifying basic themes within wide textual data. The latent level of analysis converged on the implicit ideas, suppositions, notions, and orientations that describe or point out the meaning of the data. The action of incorporating LDA software intensifies the efficiency and level of the qualitative research methodology used to critically examine the language policies of Nigeria and South Africa. The results revealed that the language policies in Nigeria and South Africa have a notable influence on linguistic diversity, supporting the principles of translanguaging and multilingualism. Also, the policies give priority to the inclusion of indigenous languages in education to improve unity and preserve cultural heritage. With a careful survey of language policies and their significance, the results give important and useful recommendations on the increase of inclusivity in language policies for the preservation and promotion of linguistic diversity in different cultural environments. Native languages should be given a notable preference in language policies so that there will be room for the use of translanguaging and multilingual pedagogies in the school systems. Keywords: Inclusive Education, Indigenous Languages, Language Policy, Linguistic Diversity, Multilingualism, Translanguaging

Multilingual learners’ literacy identities: ideology and local enactment of a language-restrictive alternative instructional program

This article reports a case study of the local enactment of a supportive mainstream language program in two elementary classrooms in a school district with an increasing number of linguistically and culturally diverse students. The study explores how teachers and multilingual learners (MLs) in this context navigate the school’s supportive mainstream language program, a type of alternative instructional program, that pulls MLs out of their mainstream classrooms for English language development instruction. Most US language education policies currently outline alternative instructional language programs, such as supportive mainstream and sheltered instruction programs, as options for districts and schools. To understand MLs’ literacy development opportunities in such programs, the study examines literacy identity construction through the interaction of participants’ language ideologies and literacy practices as they enact the language program. Drawing on the theory of heteroglossia and works on literacy communities, the article unpacks the nuances of language-restrictive programs that position MLs in deficit light. The findings highlight the dissonance between participants’ ideologies and literacy practices used negotiate their subjectivities, and constructed deficit identities within the school’s dominant hegemonic literacy community. The findings are discussed considering their implications for building authentic literacy communities and incorporating an equity perspective into language policies.

English as a medium of instruction as part of the internationalization strategy at the University of Novi Sad

ABSTRACT University of Novi Sad (UNS) is strongly oriented towards internationalization, which entails the use of English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI). This process is defined by language education policy at the macro level (national legislation) and by university policies and strategies at the meso level (university documents). However, so far there have been no studies that focus on the connections between Serbian education policy regarding EMI and how it is put into practice. For that reason I conducted semi-structured interviews with 21 content area lecturers from six faculties at UNS in order to discover how clearly content area lecturers see and perceive their role in internationalization pertaining to EMI, as well as the ways language education policy is implemented at the meso level in terms of training lecturers for EMI and providing support for teaching content courses in English. Finally, I look at how language education policy is realized in the classroom to determine to what extent lecturers rely on EMI pedagogy hoping that the comparison of all three levels of language education policy will uncover weak points and provide a basis for practical solutions that will eventually lead to more detailed and data-driven language education policy concerning EMI.

Neoliberalism in South African higher education language policy: A decolonial perspective

The global spread and hegemony of English as a medium of teaching, learning and research has come to be closely associated with neoliberalisation of higher education in the universities across the world, and has negatively impacted on epistemic issues, especially in Global South universities. No permanent solution has been found on challenges of English hegemony, particularly in African higher education. This article adds to the advancement of neoliberal discourse in higher education in South Africa by analysing neoliberal manifestations in its higher education language policy agenda. The article used desktop analysis to assess relevant literature on mainstream neoliberal ideologies and manifestations in the language policy reform post-apartheid. Drawing on relevant literature and through critical discourse analysis, it integrated evidence from the selected sources associated with mainstream neoliberal ideologies and then analysed the neoliberal manifestations in the language policy reforms pursued in South African post-apartheid context to bring out how the neoliberal actors in the higher education sector have reconfigured neoliberal principles. The decolonial perspective premised on concepts such as coloniality of being, power and knowledge was used to critique the neoliberal manifestations in South African higher education language policy directives. The paper presents the argument that universities in the country are deeply entrenched in linguistic hierarchisation which perpetuates epistemic injustices in teaching and learning. The African higher education should endeavour to underpin its language policies in indigenous knowledge systems to help harness the African content while existing in a global space where all knowledges should be regarded as equally relevant.Contribution: This article contributes to the emerging discourse of neoliberalism in higher education in the Global South and its impact on language policy formulation and implementation.

Neoliberal ideologies and language in education policies: the case for teaching Chinese as a foreign language in Oman

ABSTRACT This paper explores the intersection of neoliberal ideologies and language policy in the context of Chinese language education in Oman's higher education system. Drawing on critical discourse analysis and theoretical frameworks of neoliberalism, the study investigates the introduction of Chinese language programmes within Omani universities, with a focus on Sultan Qaboos University (SQU). Through analysis of public documents, interviews and instructional materials, this paper examines how neoliberal free-market ideologies influence the implementation and perception of Chinese language education. Key research questions address the manifestation of neoliberal ideologies in programme policies, stakeholder perceptions and suggestions for pedagogical improvement. The findings reveal a complex interplay between geopolitical, economic and educational factors shaping language policy and its implications for Oman's higher education system.

‘Panda diplomacy’ and the subtle rise of a Chinese language ecology in Qatar

ABSTRACT Over the past two decades, the Chinese language has emerged as a global language. Gulf Cooperation Council countries, such as Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, have integrated Chinese language into their educational systems and established Confucius Institutes to promote Chinese language and culture. In Qatar, interest in Chinese language education has risen, though not as pronounced as its neighbouring countries. This article, grounded in a Critical Cultural Political Economy of Education (CCPEE) approach, provides a comprehensive overview of Chinese language and education policy in Qatar, utilising a mix of primary and secondary sources, and insights from the second author’s role as a Chinese language coordinator in Qatar. The article examines cultural, political, and economic aspects related to Qatar-China ties and the Chinese community in Qatar, the role of China during the World Cup, Chinese language in the linguistic landscape, Chinese language education policies, and the state of a Confucious Institute in Qatar. Finally, it offers some implications in terms of the future of Chinese language education in the country and some fruitful directions for further research.

Language of instruction policy in Nigeria: Assessing implementation and literacy achievement in a multilingual environment

In this study, I evaluate adherence to Nigeria's Language of Instruction (LOI) policy, which mandates that primary school students be taught in indigenous language. Using multivariate regression analysis and data from round 6 of the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS6), I assessed disparities in adherence between school types (public and private schools) and location (urban/rural areas) and regions. The results reveal private schools exhibit lower implementation rates than public schools, while urban areas lag behind rural areas, and the southern region trails the north. This highlights the challenges of enforcing a uniform LOI policy in Nigeria's linguistically diverse setting. I also examine the relationship between LOI and literacy outcomes using regression and propensity score matching anaysis. Contrary to prevailing notion that teaching children in an indigenous language improves learning outcomes, my findings show that students taught in English outperformed their peers taught in indigenous languages. This departure from the norm underscores the need to reassess generalized conclusions derived from less lingustically diverse contexts, as they might not apply settings like Nigeria. It also calls for a nuanced understanding of how LOI influences learning outcomes in diverse contexts, emphasizing the importance of tailoring educational policies to local realities.

Impact of a Thematic Writing and Communication Course on Students’ Perception of World Englishes

A study conducted at Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS) assessed the impact of a Writing and Communication (WnC) course titled Genesis of World Englishes on first-year students' perceptions of World Englishes, specifically focusing on comprehensibility, intelligibility, and accentedness. The sample consisted of 48 students and it examined changes in their attitudes before and after the course to gauge the effectiveness of the intervention, with a particular emphasis on gender differences in perceptions. It delves into the significance of comprehensibility, intelligibility, and accentedness, considering accentedness as a hindering factor for Non-Native Speakers (NNS). The findings revealed significant improvements in students' acceptance of diverse English accents following the course, supported by statistical analyses demonstrating positive changes. Initial gender-based disparities in perceptions were also observed to diminish post-intervention, highlighting the course's role in promoting equality. The study suggests that targeted educational interventions can play a crucial role in fostering inclusive attitudes toward linguistic diversity, urging policymakers to consider curriculum reforms that integrate such courses to create more accepting educational environments. These insights advocate for embracing diverse accents, aiming to reduce biases and enhance communication among speakers of different English varieties in academic settings. It also encourages communication among interlocutors of various accents in ESL and EFL academic settings to occur without the perception of reducing students’ accentedness to achieve a native like accent. Instead, ESL and EFL students should improve only those segments of their pronunciation which decrease their intelligibility and comprehensibility. The findings emphasize the significance of developing gender-sensitive approaches to ensure equitable learning outcomes. Future studies should expand sample sizes and diversify participants to explore the long-term impacts of these educational strategies further, refining language education policies and teaching pedagogy to better support diversity and inclusivity.

An Overview of Contemporary Kyrgyz Language Education Policy

An Overview of Contemporary Kyrgyz Language Education Policy