Edible Termites Research Articles

Household decisions on the consumption of edible termites in the Vhembe District of South Africa

This paper aims to identify factors influencing household decisions on whether to consume edible termites and the level of termite consumption in the Vhembe district of Limpopo province in South Africa. The study used secondary data sourced from the Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development and the University of Witwatersrand that was collected from 104 households in the Vhembe District in 2016. A descriptive statistical analysis was used to profile consumers' socio-economic characteristics. In addition, a logistic model and Ordinary Least Squares were used to determine the factors influencing a household's decision to consume edible termites and the level of consumption respectively. The results revealed that demographic factors (the age and gender of the household head) and religious beliefs influenced both consumption and the level of consumption. In addition, the type of termite preferred positively influenced the level of consumption, while knowledge influenced the decision to consume termites. The recommendations based on these results are that efforts should be made to promote the consumption of edible termites among the younger population, particularly males. Education programs could be designed to increase knowledge about termites and their nutritional benefits, which may increase consumption. Additionally, efforts should be made to understand and address the negative influence of religion on the consumption of edible termites.

Value Chain Mapping of Edible Termites (Macrotermes subhylanus) as an Alternative Source of Income to Rural Livelihoods in Alego Usonga

Reducing food insecurity remains a public policy challenge in developing countries. Food insecurity becomes severe in areas where households highly depend on undiversified livelihoods. Entomophagy has been perceived as a solution towards food security due to its nutritional benefits, environmentally friendly attributes and its potential to generate income. However, information to aid its commercialisation is limited, hence the need for value chain mapping. This paper assesses the value chain of edible termites (Macrotermes subhylanus) in Alego Usonga Sub County with the aim of promoting it as an alternative source of income. This study sought to understand the value chain actors from input supplier to consumption and their role in the value chain. Simple random sampling was used to obtain participants for the study. Face-to-face interviews and structured questionnaires were administered to 225 respondents to collect data on value chain actors and their roles. Value chain mapping technique was used for functional and technical analysis of the alate termites’ value chain. The data was analysed using descriptive statistics Chi-square tests, with the aid of Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) version 20. Value chain actors in the termite value chain included input suppliers (1.8), producers/collectors (4%), retailers (13.3%) and consumers (80.9). There was a significant difference (P ≤ 0.05) in terms of input supplier and producer/ collectors of termites; a high significant difference (P ≤ 0.001) was also recorded in hawkers and retailers, where women were reported to play a vital role in hawking and retailing of termites. In terms of transportation, human transport (82.7%) was preferred over motorbikes. Although the value chain actors agreed that edible termites could contribute to additional sources of income, the sector was insufficiently supported by farmer groups and associations, lending institutions, research, and extension service providers

Effect of desert locust control on non-target edible termites in eastern Uganda

Effects of widescale locust control with insecticides on non-target edible insects have been scarcely assessed. This study was carried out to investigate the effect of spraying desert locust with cypermethrin and chlorpyrifos on: (1) termite mound activity; (2) safety of edible termites from contamination with pesticide residues; and (3) nutritional composition of non-target edible termites. Incidences of inactive termitaria in the sprayed and unsprayed sites were enumerated. Edible soldiers ofMacrotermes spp. from sprayed and unsprayed colonies whose alates swarm around dusk, midnight and dawn were analysed for cypermethrin and chlorpyrifos residues, and proximate, mineral and flavonoid compositions. The pesticide sprays did not influence the incidence of inactive termitaria. No cypermethrin and chlorpyrifos residues were detected in the termites. Chlorpyrifos spraying lowered crude fibre and protein contents in soldiers of dawn and midnight swarming colonies, respectively; whereas cypermethrin spraying lowered ash and crude fat contents in soldiers from dawn and dusk swarming colonies, respectively. Cypermethrin spraying increased moisture content in soldiers from midnight swarming colonies. The level of manganese in soldiers from dawn swarming colonies was lowered by cypermethrin spraying, while contents of aluminium and cobalt from the same type of colony were lowered by chlorpyrifos spraying. However, levels of calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, aluminium, manganese and iron were enhanced in soldiers from different termite colonies sprayed with cypermethrin and/or chlorpyrifos. Similarly, soldier termite samples from both insecticide sprayed sites contained higher flavonoid levels than the samples from unsprayed sites. Freedom of the edible soldier termites from the pesticides residues renders them safe for consumption. The results provide insights into the likely effects of wide-scale pesticide sprays against locust on the nutritional profiles of edible termites.

English

Edible termites have played an important role in the history of human nutrition due to their nutritional value. Despite their nutritional body content, it is known that during their termitarium construction, termites accumulate metals in their bodies. This study examined the heavy metal content in selected edible termites for food safety. The household survey was carried out in 8 camps of Magoye and Stateland farming blocks in Mazabuka district. The study was done to determine human activities in the farmlands. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data via one-on-one interview. A total of 362 respondents participated and their farmland activities included; mixed farming, agrochemical usage, transportation, milling, mining and termite harvesting. Composite samples of selected edible soldier termites and the nest soil were analysed for the presence of Cu, Co, Pb, Mn, Ni, Zn, Fe using atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Results in nest soil showed all analysed metals, with Mn having the highest mean 6.65±1.73 mg/L and sampled termites showed presence of all heavy metals except Ni and Co, with Fe having the highest mean value of 5.38±4.75 mg/L. ANOVA revealed a significant difference with P<0.05 in Co, Mn, Zn, Ni in nest soil and no significant difference in sampled termites. There was no significant Pearson correlation between heavy metals in soil and edible termites, suggesting an active regulation of metals by termites. Keywords: Edible insects, entomophagy, termitarium, Magoye, Zambia.

Analysis of Feed Preference of Edible Termites (Isoptera) on Selected Plants and Their Crude Extract Phytochemistry

Termites are social insects that inhabit colonies in the soil. Termites feed on a wide range of plants found within diverse habitats of Luanda Sub-County. This study aimed at assessing feed preference of edible termites and analyzing their phytochemical composition. Termites were exposed to ten different test plants in their natural habitats to assess feed preference. Forty-seven study sites were selected as they had high termite abundance from previous studies. The test plants were Grevillea robusta, sugarcane, maize, blue citronella grass, Eucalyptus, mango, avocado, neem, bamboo and a mixture of all the ten plants. Small pits were dug in the ground where the ten treatments were placed and replicated four times each. The test plants were placed in the evening then covered with soil block. The number of termites feeding on the test plants was counted after 12 hours the following day. There were separate trials for crushed and uncrushed feed substrates. The feed substrates that showed high feed preference was selected for phytochemical analysis. The plants whose crude extract was obtained were Grevillea robusta, bamboo, Eucalyptus, cypress, maize and sugarcane. The results for this study were analysed using one-way ANOVA. The study revealed that crushed feed substrates had a high level of feed preference by termites p a. Phytochemical analysis of the crude plant extracts revealed that Eucalyptus had the highest number of phytochemicals present 9 out of 12. The identified phytochemicals were saponins, tannins, alkaloids, resins, cardiac glycosides, carbohydrates, phenols and flavones.

Morphological Identification of Edible Termites (Isoptera) in Luanda Sub-County, Kenya

Termites are social insects that live in colonies underground. Globally, there are 3000 termite species, of which 39% are found in Africa. Termites are used as food and livestock feed in most communities of the world. In Kenya, termites are consumed by many communities, especially in the western region. Termite species diversity across different parts of the Luanda sub-county was established as there are many edible and non-edible species in the area. This study assessed the species diversity of termites in Luanda sub-county, and characterized them morphologically. Termites were sampled in Luanda sub-county using the line transect method. The collected termites were preserved in tubes containing 70% Ethanol. The preserved samples were taken to the National Museums of Kenya for morphological identification up to species level. Species richness of each habitat was analyzed for diversity (Shannon-Wiener) index and Shannon index by using Vegan package version 1.16 - 32 in R. The differences in species composition and diversity of termites were analyzed using one-way ANOVA. Morphological identification recorded seven species, namely, Macrotermes herus, Macrotermes spp1, Macrotermes sp1, Pseudocanthotermes grandiceps, Macrotermes bellicosus, Macrotermes spp2 and Pseudocanthotermes militaris. The results of this study showed that the Shannon diversity index H was 0.3606 while Simpson index D was 0.20644, which implied a high species diversity of termites in Luanda sub-county a leading producer of edible termites in Kenya.

Microbial load of edible termites (macroterme spp.) from collection to marketing in Serenje District, Central Zambia

Edible insects including termites form a suitable alternative for sustainable provision of animal protein to fight protein-energy malnutrition. It is as cardinal to study the food safety of edible termites as it is for any other food stuff. Twenty seven (27) samples were collected and analysed for total viable counts and Enterobacteriaceae. The microbial load was assessed using culture, microscopic and biochemical methods. The isolates identified in this study includeStaphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, yeasts other thanCandida albicans andZygomycetes. Investigation of the total viable counts and Enterobacteriaceae of open air traded edible termites revealed loads higher than those recommended for minced meat 5.7 to 6.7 log10 cfu/g. The mean ranges were between 6.87 and 9.29 log10 cfu/g for total viable counts and 6.64 and 8.537 log10 cfu/g for Enterobacteriaceae. The presence ofE. coli suggests faecal contamination of the sample along the value chain whereasS. aureus, yeasts other thanC. albicans, andZygomycetes indicate unhygienic handling of the food samples. Heat treatments can reduce the loads but may not be effective for enterotoxins and recontamination of the sample is possible. Poor hygiene and sanitation by handlers may contribute to contamination and recontamination of Edible termites. Food safety and hygiene education on processing and handling practices that reduce microbial loads at collection sites, transportation and display points are important especially since termites are sold as ready to eat foods in African open air Markets. Legislation on open defecation, use of toilets and promotion of hand washing hygiene can effectively reduce the risk of contamination with gastrointestinal microflora from faecal matter.

Soil characteristics and nutritional traits of Mactrotermes natalensis (Isoptera: Macrotermitinae) as indicators of nutritional quality in Zimbabwe

Macrotermes natalensis is a widely consumed edible termite species that inhabits termitaria of different soil colours in southern Africa. However, there is paucity of data regarding the relationship between termitaria soil properties, nutritional composition and safety for edible soldier termites. We hypothesised that soil properties viz. metal composition, and colour are positively correlated to mineral composition, bioactive compounds and level of contamination by heavy metals in soldier termites. Replicated insects samples were collected from termitaria of different soil colour types from Bikita district, Zimbabwe. Soil and insect mineral composition were determined using standard methods. Antioxidant properties of methanol insect extracts were estimated using the DPPH test. A cluster analysis was performed to relate soil colour to soil and insect minerals compositions and DPPH. Soil Zn and Cu significantly varied (P 50%) was independent of soil colour, soil and insect mineral composition. There is a possible risk of Pb poisoning associated with consumption of soldier Macrotermes natalensis irrespective of termitaria soil colour; however, the risk is more pronounced in insects gathered from yellowish-brown soils.

Termite mound density and distribution patterns across three land‐use types in the Vhembe District of the Limpopo Province, South Africa

AbstractThis study investigated the effect of land‐use on density and distribution patterns of termite mounds. A total area of 12 ha was investigated using four 1 ha plots from each of three land‐use types (mango orchards, maize fields and communal rangelands). A total of 297 mounds from four termite species were recorded. Plotted GIS coordinates for each mound in ArcMap showed a random distribution pattern in all land‐use types. The mean number of mounds per hectare was significantly higher (p < 0.001) in communal rangelands (52.5 ± 1.21), than in maize fields (14.75 ± 3.15) and mango orchards (7.5 ± 0.87), and dominated by small‐sized mounds of Trinervitermes sp. Few mounds of Odontotermes sp. were found. Mounds of the edible termites, Macrotermes natalensis and M. falciger, were found in all land‐use types, with the highest density for both species being in maize fields. Although the mound height for both species was similar, mound circumference for M. falciger was significantly larger (p < 0.001) which may limit land available for agricultural use. Density of mounds was influenced by land‐use which may lead to changes in termite ecosystem functioning and availability of termites as a free source of protein.

Mineral analysis reveals extreme manganese concentrations in wild harvested and commercially available edible termites

Termites are widely used as a food resource, particularly in Africa and Asia. Markets for insects as food are also expanding worldwide. To inform the development of insect-based foods, we analysed selected minerals (Fe-Mn-Zn-Cu-Mg) in wild-harvested and commercially available termites. Mineral values were compared to selected commercially available insects. Alate termites, of the genera Macrotermes and Odontotermes, showed remarkably high manganese (Mn) content (292–515 mg/100 gdw), roughly 50–100 times the concentrations detected in other insects. Other mineral elements occur at moderate concentrations in all insects examined. On further examination, the Mn is located primarily in the abdomens of the Macrotermes subhyalinus; with scanning electron microscopy revealing small spherical structures highly enriched for Mn. We identify the fungus comb, of Macrotermes subhyanus, as a potential biological source of the high Mn concentrations. Consuming even small quantities of termite alates could exceed current upper recommended intakes for Mn in both adults and children. Given the widespread use of termites as food, a better understanding the sources, distribution and bio-availability of these high Mn concentrations in termite alates is needed.

Taxonomic features and comparisons of the gut microbiome from two edible fungus-farming termites (Macrotermes falciger; M. natalensis) harvested in the Vhembe district of Limpopo, South Africa

BackgroundTermites are an important food resource for many human populations around the world, and are a good supply of nutrients. The fungus-farming ‘higher’ termite members of Macrotermitinae are also consumed by modern great apes and are implicated as critical dietary resources for early hominins. While the chemical nutritional composition of edible termites is well known, their microbiomes are unexplored in the context of human health. Here we sequenced the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene of gut microbiota extracted from the whole intestinal tract of two Macrotermes sp. soldiers collected from the Limpopo region of South Africa.ResultsMajor and minor soldier subcastes of M. falciger exhibit consistent differences in taxonomic representation, and are variable in microbial presence and abundance patterns when compared to another edible but less preferred species, M. natalensis. Subcaste differences include alternate patterns in sulfate-reducing bacteria and methanogenic Euryarchaeota abundance, and differences in abundance between Alistipes and Ruminococcaceae. M. falciger minor soldiers and M. natalensis soldiers have similar microbial profiles, likely from close proximity to the termite worker castes, particularly during foraging and fungus garden cultivation. Compared with previously published termite and cockroach gut microbiome data, the taxonomic representation was generally split between termites that directly digest lignocellulose and humic substrates and those that consume a more distilled form of nutrition as with the omnivorous cockroaches and fungus-farming termites. Lastly, to determine if edible termites may point to a shared reservoir for rare bacterial taxa found in the gut microbiome of humans, we focused on the genus Treponema. The majority of Treponema sequences from edible termite gut microbiota most closely relate to species recovered from other termites or from environmental samples, except for one novel OTU strain, which clustered separately with Treponema found in hunter-gatherer human groups.ConclusionsMacrotermes consumed by humans display special gut microbial arrangements that are atypical for a lignocellulose digesting invertebrate, but are instead suited to the simplified nutrition in the fungus-farmer diet. Our work brings to light the particular termite microbiome features that should be explored further as avenues in human health, agricultural sustainability, and evolutionary research.

Effect of locally produced complementary foods on fat-free mass, linear growth, and iron status among Kenyan infants: A randomized controlled trial.

The impact of quality complementary food products on infant growth and body composition has not been adequately investigated. This study evaluated the effect on fat-free mass (FFM) accrual, linear growth, and iron status of locally produced complementary food products comparing to a standard product. In a randomized, double-blind trial, 499 infants at 6months received nine monthly rations of (a) WinFood Classic (WFC) comprising germinated amaranth (71%), maize (10.4%), small fish (3%), and edible termites (10%); (b) WinFood Lite (WFL) comprising germinated amaranth (82.5%), maize (10.2%), and multimicronutrient premix; or (c) fortified corn-soy blend plus (CSB+). Primary outcomes were changes in FFM, length, and plasma ferritin and transferrin receptors (TfR). FFM was determined using deuterium dilution. Analysis was by intention to treat, based on available cases. Compared with CSB+, there were no differences in change from 6 to 15months in FFM for WFC 0.0kg (95% CI [-0.30, 0.29]) and WFL 0.03kg (95% CI [-0.25, 0.32]) and length change for WFC -0.3cm (95% CI [-0.9, 0.4]) and WFL -0.3cm (95% CI [-0.9, 0.3]). TfR increased in WFC group 3.3mgL-1 (95% CI [1.7, 4.9]) and WFL group 1.7mgL-1 (95% CI [0.1, 3.4]) compared with CSB+. Compared with the increase in Hb in CSB+ group, there was a reduction in Hb in WFC of -0.9gdl-1 (95% CI [-1.3, -0.5]) and a lower increase in WFL -0.4gdl-1 (95% CI [-0.8, 0.0]). In conclusion, the tested WinFoods had the same effect on FFM and length as CSB+, whereas Hb and iron status decreased, suggesting inhibited iron bioavailability from the amaranth-based WinFoods.

Traditional method of hunting edible termite, Odontotermes formosanus Shiraki by the Irulars of Gingee hills, South India

Background : Insects, especially termites are considered as one of the nutritious foods widely used by various ethnic communities throughout the world. Present study was undertaken among rural people in Gingee hills of Eastern Ghats, India to know about traditional hunting method for edible termites ( Odontotermes formosanus Shiraki) practiced by them to fulfill their protein requirement and as a source of revenue. Methods : Traditional method of hunting edible termites by Irulars of Periyamalai was observed for a couple of years. Preparation of herbal mixture, trapping method and other information were documented through direct observation in the field and by interviewing the individuals involved in termite hunting. Results : A total of 11 plant species were found to be used in termite hunting process and to treat diseases or allergies occurred (if any) after consumption of termites. Powdered roots of Aristolochia indica L., seeds of Canavalia cathartica Thouars and leaves of Glycosmis mauritiana (Lam.) Tanaka, are used to harvest termites from their mounds and to treat poisonous bites. Acalypha fruticosa Forssk ., Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link., Madhuca longifolia (J. Koenig ex L.) J.F. Macbr. Pavetta indica L. and Premna tomentosa Willd. are used by Irulars in treating skin allergic conditions after consuming termites. Conclusions : Traditional method of hunting edible termites with medicinal plants shows the rich traditional knowledge of the Irulars. There should be initiatives to identify and quantify the nutritional and nutraceutical value of termite species used by ethnic people for value addition, which in turn improve their livelihood. Also, it is essential to study the plants employed in termite hunting for their wound healing potential.

Human uses and indigenous knowledge of edible termites in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa

Termites are a good food source, being rich in proteins, fats, vitamins and many essential mineral nutrients, and thus provide food security for poor households. We report on a survey conducted in the Vhembe District Municipality of Limpopo Province, South Africa, to identify edible termite species and find out how they are harvested, prepared, graded, packaged and marketed. We also looked at the socio-economic factors of the harvesters, marketers and consumers. Using a structured questionnaire, 104 individuals were interviewed from 48 villages. Most of the harvesters were over the age of 60 years but termites are consumed by the whole family. The results of the survey revealed that only three termite species are consumed: soldiers of Macrotermes falciger (89.90%), M. natalensis (8.08%) and M. michaelseni (2.02%). The preferred method of preparation was frying (77.55% of the respondents). At least 80.77% of the respondents indicated that some religions have restrictions on termite consumption but no ethnic restrictions were reported. The income derived from selling termites was estimated to range from ZAR2040 to ZAR17 680 per annum between April 2015 and April 2016. The results of this study showed that edible termites contribute significantly to the livelihoods of many rural families and this indigenous knowledge should be passed on to younger generations. Research on the sustainability of termite harvesting is recommended.
 Significance: 
 
 Termites are sources of food with high economic and social importance, and are easily accessible by the poor.
 Studies have been conducted on edible termites in many African countries, yet comparatively little is known about edible termites in South Africa.
 Preservation of indigenous knowledge used during harvesting and processing needs to be prioritised.

English

Edible insects have been proposed as an alternative protein source that is economically and environmentally preferable to livestock, and certain species may be high in nutrients that benefit human health. We present data describing the mineral content of five edible insects as sold in South Africa and Zimbabwe. We report high variation between and within species, and note that these insects contain significant quantities of potentially beneficial, and potentially harmful, micronutrients. Two caterpillars were notably high in Fe and Zn, which are important nutrients for combating iron deficiency anemia. Na content varied both between and within species, suggesting that some sellers add quantities of salt that could be harmful to health. Mn levels were high in edible termites. We concluded that caterpillars can be promoted as nutrient rich foods in southern Africa; that added salt should be limited in commercial products; and that further research is required to determine whether common serving sizes of termites may put consumers in danger of manganese poisoning.   Key words: Edible insects, nutrition, mineral composition, micronutrients, Lepidoptera.

WinFood data from Kenya and Cambodia: constraints on field procedures.

Researchers face myriad challenges in the design and implementation of randomized, controlled trials. Apart from summaries on limitations, these challenges are rarely documented in detail to inform future research projects. To describe methodological challenges encountered during randomized, controlled trials (WinFood Study) designed to assess the efficacy of locally produced complementary foods based on traditional animal-source foods (edible termites and spiders) to support growth and nutritional status in Kenyan and Cambodian infants. In a randomized, controlled design, infants received WinFood or corn-soy blend (CSB) for 9 months from 6 to 15 months of age. Lean mass accrual and blood nutrition indicators (lipid profile, iron and zinc status) were measured cross-sectionally at 9 and 15 months of age, respectively. Lean mass was determined by measuring deuterium oxide enrichment in saliva samples following a standard dose of deuterium solution (0.5 g/kg body weight) to infants. Blood nutrition indicators were determined following the drawing of 3 mL of blood by venipuncture. Challenges included rapid depletion of food rations, high rate of loss to follow-up, delayed ethical approval, lack of local food-processing capacity, low capacity among staff to draw blood, and lack of laboratory capacity to perform both deuterium oxide and micronutrient status measurements. Spillage of deuterium oxide solution during dosing was a major challenge in the Kenya context. A high rate of morbidity among infants made some assessments very difficult, especially drawing of blood and saliva samples. The challenges were largely contextual. Improvement of local laboratory capacity, training of staff and sensitization of the communities and the Ethics Review Committee are highly recommended.

Nutrients, functional properties, storage stability and costing of complementary foods enriched with either termites and fish or commercial micronutrients

Application of edible insects in complementary food production has not been studied much. This study developed and evaluated complementary foods based on edible termites to combat child malnutrition in Kenya. Two complementary foods, Winfood Classic (W-C; containing termites anddagaa fish) and Winfood Lite (W-L; without termites anddagaa fish) were formulated and processed by extrusion cooking. Their nutrient content, functional properties, storage stability and cost of the foods were evaluated using standard methods. W-C contained significantly higher (P<0.001) levels of 423.6 kcal/100 g energy, 19.1 g/100 g protein, 12.3 g/100 g fat, 6.3 mg/100 g zinc than W-L which contained 407.2 kcal/100 g energy, 14.6 g/100 g protein, 9.0 g/100 g fat and 5.5 mg/100 g zinc. Iron content in W-C (12.2 mg/100 g) and W-L (12.5 mg/100 g) were not significantly different (P=0.37). The energy contribution from fats (26.1 E%) from W-C was within the recommend levels in complementary foods while energy from proteins (protein E%) was higher from the two foods (18.0 and 14.3 E%, respectively). Bulk density was significantly different (P=0.02) amongst W-C and W-L and within the recommended levels of ≤0.5 g/cm3 in complementary foods. The foods were shelf stable for 6 months of storage with neither pathogenic microorganisms nor aflatoxins reported. Peroxide value was below the limits (≤10 meq/kg) after 6 months of storage. Production cost of the foods was 3.21 and 2.23 US$/kg for W-C and W-L, respectively, with termites contributing 42.3% of the basic cost of production in W-C. The study confirms that termites anddagaa fish can be utilised in processing of affordable and safe complementary foods with adequate nutrient density.

Acceptability of Amaranth Grain-based Nutritious Complementary Foods with Dagaa Fish (Rastrineobola argentea) and Edible Termites (Macrotermes subhylanus) Compared to Corn Soy Blend Plus among Young Children/Mothers Dyads in Western Kenya

<p>We assessed acceptability of two flours and porridges of complementary foods based on germinated grain amaranth and maize with or without edible termites and <em>dagaa </em>small fish named “Winfood Classic” (WFC) and “Winfood Lite” (WFL), respectively, compared to Corn Soy Blend Plus (CSB+) among mothers and young children. A total of 57 children consumed each of the three foods on separate days with one-day washout between foods. Each food was considered acceptable if the child consumed at least 75% of the serving. Most mothers preferred WFL flour and porridge (63.2% and 70.2%, respectively) compared to WFC (24.4% and 10.5%) and CSB+ (12.3% and 19.3%). Children consuming at least 75% of served porridge were 43%, 19.6% and 21% for WFL, WFC and CSB+, respectively. No adverse effects were observed for all the foods throughout the study period and follow up lasting 4 weeks. All foods were acceptable and can be further developed and be tested for efficacy.</p><br /><br /><br />

Process development, nutrition and sensory qualities of wheat buns enriched with edible termites (Macrotermes subhylanus) from Lake Victoria region, Kenya.

Edible insects are an important source of nutrients. Edible winged termites (Macrotermes subhylanus), locally known as agoro in Lake Victoria region of Kenya, is an integral part of the diet in that region depending on seasonal availability and are traditionally consumed as a snack: raw, fried or sun-dried. The nutritional and economic value of the insect is often neglected and this study was geared towards encouraging their collection, utilization and commercialization. The present study was, therefore, undertaken to develop a process of incorporating edible termites into baked food products and evaluate the product’s nutritional and sensory qualities. The study involved substitution of wheat flour with ground termite at proportions of 0%, 5%, 10% and 20% levels based on weight. Sensory attributes were evaluated using a mixed panel where half the panelists had a prior history of insect’s consumption. The sensory attributes were evaluated on a 7-point Hedonic scale. The results showed that there was no significant difference (p>0.05) in bun thickness (height) between the buns with 0% and 5% termite concentration. The scores for bun texture, aroma, taste and overall consumer preference were not significantly different (p≤0.05) at 0% and 5% substitution. Differences in size, aroma and taste scores for the 5% bun and the 10% substitution were non-significant. Scores obtained at 20% level of substitution depicted lesser acceptability in all the attributes tested except for aroma, which scored above 5.0. In terms of consumer general acceptability, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) between the control (0%) and 5% substitution with both scoring above 5.0 (like slightly). The 5% substitution showed a significant increase (p≤0.05) in protein, retinol, riboflavin, iron and zinc contents to the extents of between 16% and 53% increase. The wheat-termite buns at 5% substitution were well accepted by the consumers signifying the great potential for large-scale production and commercialization of the insects in an effort to ensuring food security in Africa.