Edible Oil Production Research Articles

Assessing population structure and morpho-molecular characterization of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) for elite germplasm identification.

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), known for its adaptability and high yield potential, is vital in global edible oil production. Estimating genetic diversity is a key pre-breeding activity in crop breeding. The current study comprised of 48 genotypes which were assessed for their biometrical traits at department of Oilseeds, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, during the rainy season of 2022. The lines were subsequently characterised using 103 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers for molecular diversity analysis. The results indicated that the net nucleotide distances indicated varying genetic divergence, with subpopulations II and V showing the highest (0.056) and I and IV the lowest (0.014). Subpopulation IV exhibited the highest heterozygosity (0.352), while subpopulation III had the lowest heterozygosity and a low Fst (0.173). Principal components analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis were employed for assessing the morphological diversity, facilitating genotype grouping and parent selection for breeding programs. The first four components cumulatively accounted for 86.72% of the total variation. Cluster Analysis grouped 48 sunflower genotypes into three clusters based on genetic diversity. COSF 13B stands out for its high head diameter, oil content, seed yield, and oil yield based on mean performance of morphological data. Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) mirrored the groupings from the Neighbor Joining method, with the first three components explaining 27.24% of the total variation. Molecular data analysis identified five distinct clusters among the germplasm. By integrating morphological and molecular marker data with genetic distance analysis, substantial diversity was revealed with the genotypes RHA 273 and GMU 325 consistently demonstrated high oil yield per plant. The genotypes GMU 477, GMU 450, COSF 13B, RHA 102, CMS 1103B, and RHA GPR 58 have been identified as suitable parents for enhancing oil content in sunflower breeding programs. These findings also aid in selecting SSR markers for genotype characterization and in choosing diverse parents for breeding programs.

Development of Oil Industry in Poland in the Context of the European Union.

Oil industry is developing well in Poland. This study aimed to examine the development of the Polish oil industry after joining the European Union. The following questions were asked: What were the changes in the consumption of vegetable oils in Poland after EU enlargement in 2004? How did the production of vegetable oil change in Poland after EU enlargement in 2004? And has the liquidity of the Polish oil industry changed after EU enlargement in 2004? First, the changes in the oil industry were evaluated. This research proved the development of the fat industry. We used the regression model to analyze the impact of chosen factors on the economic situation of the oil industry in Poland. Rapeseed is the main source of oil for the edible oil and biodiesel industry. High prices of rapeseed increased the sown area of rapeseed. The production of crude rapeseed oil changed from 520.1 thousand tons in 2005 to 1440 thousand tons in 2023. Biofuels made from rapeseed oils are called first generation. Poland's production of refined rapeseed oil changed from 386.5 thousand tons in 2005 to 541 thousand tons in 2023. These numbers confirm the development of edible oil and biofuel production. The gross profit increased from PLN 133 mln in 2005 to PLN 443.8 mln in 2023. The net profit of the fat industry increased from PLN 110 mln in 2005 to PLN 381.6 mln in 2023. The oil industry is characterized by high investment, which reached the level of PLN 232.9 mln in 2023. The investment rate in 2023 was PLN 1.96 %. The changes observed in the rapeseed market after Poland joined the EU affected the performance of vegetable oil and biofuel producers. The regression analysis proved the hypothesis that the monthly consumption of rapeseed oil is the main factor influencing the oil industry situation in Poland. The oil industry is important to the development of the whole economy. Particular attention should be paid to current liquidity, which is why a constant supply of money from sold oil and biodiesel is needed to cover costs.

Endosperm-specific expressed transcription factor protein WRINKLED1-mediated oil accumulative mechanism in woody oil peony Paeonia ostii var. lishizhenii

Paeonia ostii var. lishizhenii exhibits superiority of high α-linolenic acid in seed oils, yet, the low yield highlights the importance of enhancing oil accumulation in seeds for edible oil production. The transcription factor protein WRINKLED1 (WRI1) plays crucial roles in modulating oil content in higher plants; however, its functional characterization remains elusive in P. ostii var. lishizhenii. Herein, based on a correlation analysis of transcription factor transcript levels, FA accumulation rates, and interaction assay of FA biosynthesis associated proteins, a WRI1 homologous gene (PoWRI1) that potentially regulated oil content in P. ostii var. lishizhenii seeds was screened. The PoWRI1 exhibited an endosperm-specific and development-depended expression pattern, encoding a nuclear-localized protein with transcriptional activation capability. Notably, overexpressing PoWRI1 upregulated certain key genes relevant to glycolysis, FA biosynthesis and desaturation, and improved seed development, oil body formation and oil accumulation in Arabidopsis seeds, resulting an enhancement of total seed oil weight by 9.47–18.77 %. The defective impacts on seed phenotypes were rescued through ectopic induction of PoWRI1 in wri1 mutants. Our findings highlight the pivotal role of PoWRI1 in controlling oil accumulation in P. ostii var. lishizhenii, offering bioengineering strategies to increase seed oil accumulation and enhance its potential for edible oil production.

Chemometric Modeling Revealed Oleic and Linoleic Acids as Varietal Biomarkers for Six Sesame Varieties-In Vitro and UHPLC Analyses.

Pakistan once considered self-sufficient for edible oil production now became the major importer with 88.6% imports and producing only the minor portion. Scientific negligence in oil seed crops led to a dramatic decrease in edible oil production depending mainly on only the imports. Sesamum indicum L., "Queen of Oil seeds" with 50-55% oil, is cultivated in various geographical regions of Pakistan, but farmers are not considering this crop because of insufficient knowledge, poor crop management practices, and low yielding varieties. This study was conducted to check the nutritional, biochemical, antioxidant, and yield potentials of six major varieties, i.e., TS-5, TH-6, Til-18, NIAB-Mil, NIAB-Pearl, and NS-16, and to compare the nutritionals, oil quality, and oil yield potential of these varieties. Field experiment was conducted, and various crop growth biomarkers were analyzed. Chlorophyll content and superoxide dismutase activity were found to be highest in NIAB-Mil followed by NIAB-Pearl and comparable to those of Til-18, while APX, Cat, and GPX activity was found to be highest in Til-18 with 25.6 and 5.9 and 6.02 mg/g, respectively. Seed antioxidant parameters showed a mixed response, but NIAB-Mil, NIAB pearl, and Til-18 were found to be highest in all antioxidant parameters. UHPLC analysis of seed oil resulted in a total of 14 triacylglycerols (TAGs), and principal component analysis and OPLS-Da analysis showed seven TAG biomarkers responsible for the separation of sesame varieties. Til-18 was found to be highest in oil content (53.3%) more abundant with oleic acid, while NIAB-Pearl, NIAB-Mil, and NS-16 were found to be abundant with linoleic acid, both considered as potential TAG biomarkers for sesame oil separation. This study concluded that, in general, Til-18 variety is more resistant with high nutritional status, high antioxidant activity, and oil yielding variety, followed by NIAB-Mil and NIAB-Pearl.

High-precision detection of dibutyl hydroxytoluene in edible oil via convolutional autoencoder compressed Fourier-transform near-infrared spectroscopy

The quality of edible oils is closely related to their chemical compositions. Antioxidants have widespread application in edible oil production. In this study, a pioneering detection approach involving the use of a one-dimensional convolutional autoencoder (1D-CAE) was introduced to compress spectral data for assessing antioxidant levels in edible oils. Fourier-transform near-infrared (FT-NIR) characterisation of edible oil samples with varying antioxidant concentrations was also conducted. An 1D-CAE model was developed to compress different pre-processed spectra into a condensed representation. These compressed features were then integrated with a support vector machine and partial least squares regression models to establish correlations for each target. The study examined the influence of pre-processing steps and feature engineering methods on near-infrared spectral analysis through independent or combined model analysis. The findings revealed that features derived from the 1D-CAE model demonstrated remarkable repeatability and can be utilised to construct robust detection models. The experimental results showed that the optimal detection model derived based on the 1D-CAE compression features has an average R2, RPD and RMSE of 0.9953, 15.1664 and 1.2035, respectively, on the prediction set. FT-NIR spectroscopy can be used to accurately detect butylated hydroxytoluene in edible oils. Therefore, autoencoders are an effective tool in spectroscopic analysis, offering promising avenues for future research and application.

Linear Programming Model for Sunflower Oil Supply Chain Network

Food supply networks are vital to the global economy, producing and consuming products worldwide. Supply chain management (SCM) has emerged as a crucial technique to optimize the integrated network of suppliers, factories, warehouses, customers, and distribution channels. SCM aims to ensure efficient raw material sources, transformation, transportation, and timely customer delivery. Edible oil, a crucial ingredient for cooking and food preparation, is utilized by people from all social classes. Vegetable oils, particularly sunflower, soybean, peanut, and others, are the main source of edible oils, which have less unsaturated fatty acids compared to animal oils. The production and consumption of edible oils have substantial environmental impacts, necessitating increased research to address these implications. Sunflower, a valuable oilseed crop, is grown worldwide due to its short growing season and adaptability to various climates and soil types. Sunflower seeds have high oil and protein content, making them popular for their health benefits. This article uses a linear optimization model for the sunflower oil supply chain from the farmer to the end user. The objective is to minimize the overall transportation cost subject to capacity, demand fulfillment, and waste management.

Incorporating Culture-Independent Methods to Identify Net Syndrome-Associated Fusarium Species in Peanuts

Peanuts ( Arachis hypogaea) are of significant agricultural importance due to their versatile uses, providing a valuable source of edible oil and protein-rich food products and serving in industrial applications. Peanuts are susceptible to various diseases, one of them being net syndrome, a poorly understood threat triggered by an undefined causal agent, with symptoms including black coloring and lesions of the peanut pod that affect product quality. In this study, amplicon sequencing was harnessed to explore the fungal and bacterial populations associated with the syndrome. Using this approach, we identified a specific Fusarium sp. amplicon sequence variant that demonstrated a significant correlation with the presence of net syndrome symptoms in both young and mature peanuts. This finding was further validated by Koch's postulates testing, including isolation, cultivation, and application of this strain to corroborate its involvement in net syndrome in peanuts. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of the interactions between peanuts and their microbial communities and to identification of the previously undetermined agent involved in net syndrome and the etiology of the disease.

Evaluation of different roasting condition on yield, physico-chemical characteristics, and antioxidant activity of cold-pressed sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis) oil

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis) seed oil, which is extracted from sacha inchi seeds, may possibly establish a nutritive source which prosperous of nutraceutical value. It is paramount to assess the oil production potential of industrial oilseeds for manufacturing applications. Roasting is a key procedure for preparing oils of plant origin, which leads to crucial changes in the oil quality. With the aim of evaluating new sources for the industrial production of edible oil, the effect of different temperatures (60, 80, 100, and 120 °C) and times (10, 20, and 30 min) of roasting as an important pretreatment was evaluated on the yield, physical-chemical and qualitative properties of cold-pressed sacha inchi seed oil. Results showed that the oil yield, acid value (AV), peroxide value (PV), p-anisidine value, and oil stability index (OSI) increased, whereas the iodine value (IV) and conjugated diene (CD) content decreased with treatment temperature and time. There were no obvious different in the fatty acid composition. Prolonged roasting temperature and time increased tocopherol, phytosterol, squalene, total phenolic content (TPC), and antioxidant activity. Current findings indicated that thermal processing may have positive effect towards the quality and nutritional content of sacha inchi seed oil.

Vitamin C-reduced graphene oxide/Fe3O4 composite for simultaneous removal of aflatoxin B1 and benzo(a)pyrene in vegetable oils

Vegetable oils are essential constituent of the daily dietary intake. Nevertheless, they often contain aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and benzo(a)pyrene (BAP). Physical adsorption is the most commonly used detoxification method in the vegetable oils industry. Regrettably, the previously reported adsorbents have exhibited limited efficacy, rendering them inadequate for meeting the requirements of large-scale production of edible oils. In this work, a superparamagnetic Fe3O4/reduced graphene oxide (rGO) composite was synthesized by a one-step hydrothermal method using vitamin C (VC), and systematically characterized. The Vitamin C-reduced graphene oxide/Fe3O4 composite (VC-rGO/Fe3O4) could serve as an efficient adsorbent in edible vegetable oils for the simultaneous removal of AFB1 and BAP. The results of the batch adsorption studies indicated that the pseudo-second order model and Sips model, respectively, were the best fit kinetic model and adsorption isotherm model. The adsorption of AFB1 and BAP on VC-rGO/Fe3O4 was spontaneous, which included both physical and chemical adsorption processes. The removal efficiencies of VC-rGO/Fe3O4 in 13 vegetable oils were evaluated, revealing a wide range of practical applications. Moreover, the quality and safety of detoxified vegetable oils is acceptable. Therefore, VC-rGO/Fe3O4 have been tested as promising candidates for the simultaneous removal of AFB1 and BAP in edible vegetable oils.

Pellets Obtained from the Husks of Sunflower Seeds and Beech Sawdust for Comparison

The energetic fossil resources of the world have decreased drastically in recent decades, and the quick and efficient solution to replace them is to use renewable biomass resources. This category also includes vegetable biomass, and within it, sunflower seed shells have an important contribution. The present work aimed to analyze the pellets obtained from the husks of sunflower seeds, as lignocellulosic biomass resulting from the production of edible oil, and for comparison, some pellets from beech sawdust were used. The main physical properties (such as moisture content, density, coefficient of densification, etc.), mechanical properties (such as shear strength) and calorific properties (high and low calorific value, calorific density, volatile content and ash content) were determined and statistically analyzed. As the main element of comparison of these types of pellets, the pellets obtained from beech sawdust were used. For the comparison of the pellets obtained from the husks of sunflower seeds, especially to observe their differences compared to the torrefied pellets, charcoal was chosen. The conclusions highlighted the fact that sunflower seed husks are an important source of biomass that can be used to obtain lignocellulosic pellets, and the torrefied pellets obtained from these husks are comparable with the energetic value of charcoal.

Exploring the Genetic Wealth of Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.): A Comprehensive Review on Its Products and By-Products

Sunflower stands out as a significant oilseed crop, pivotal not only in the production of edible oil and biofuels but also in the formulation of nutritious animal feed. Particularly noteworthy are the diverse opportunities presented by sunflower by-products. From the nutrient-rich sunflower oil cake to the versatile sunflower wax utilized in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, the potential applications are manifold. Additionally, the burgeoning interest in sunflower-derived biofuels as sustainable alternatives to conventional energy sources highlights the crop's growing importance in modern agriculture. However, to meet the evolving demands sustainably, an in-depth analysis of sunflower cultivation practices and nutrient management strategies for optimal productivity is imperative. This review provides a comprehensive overview of sunflower cultivation techniques, processing methods, and avenues for value addition across various sectors. Renowned for its vibrant flowers and seeds brimming with high-quality oil, sunflower holds a significant economic value. Its oil, rich in beneficial unsaturated fatty acids and essential vitamins, has garnered acclaim for its health benefits, including cholesterol reduction and cardiovascular health promotion. Thriving primarily in warm climates and exhibiting resilience to drought conditions, sunflowers have witnessed a surge in demand for their sprouts, roasted seeds, oil, and even agricultural tourism ventures. With sunflower seeds and oil serving as essential components in integrated production systems, the scope for creating diverse food and non-food products continues to expand. By offering this comprehensive synthesis, this review aims to guide stakeholders towards maximizing the utilization of sunflowers across multiple domains.

Mesoporous silica aerogels for sunflower oil refining and investigation of their adsorption performance

AbstractInvolving a succession of oil refining stages for edible oil production, a notable constraint lies in the necessity to employ diverse adsorbents at various steps within these processes. This study investigates the synthesis of mesoporous silica aerogels from rice husk ash, comparing their efficacy in physical sunflower oil refining with earth clay (Bentonite) and commercial silica (Trisyl). Tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) impact during aging was analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and N2 adsorption-desorption analyzer to examine alterations in the structure of silica aerogels. The surface areas of TEOS-doped silica aerogel (TSA) and non-TEOS-doped silica aerogel (NTSA) were 296.18 and 267.06 m²/g. Mesoporous silica aerogels were evaluated for their ability to reduce free fatty acids (FFA), peroxide value (PV), phosphorus, and color pigments in sunflower oil. TSA and NTSA demonstrated significant FFA removal, with TSA at 3 wt.% achieving the highest performance of 32.2%. TSA also effectively reduced PV and phosphorus compared to NTSA, Bentonite and Trisyl, exhibiting performance similar to Bentonite in the bleaching process. TEOS-doped silica aerogels have shown promise as adsorbents for impurity removal in sunflower oil and has emerged as the potential adsorbent that can comprehensively and effectively meet the requirements of many edible oil physical refining applications in a singular step. Graphical Abstract

Microbiological quality of edible vegetable oils produced and marketed in Gondar City, Northwest Ethiopia.

Edible oils are imported and produced in Ethiopia, notably in Gondar, and their production has expanded considerably in recent years. The expansion of locally produced edible vegetable oils with severe quality control, substandard edible oil production, and quality deterioration may contribute to the contamination of microbes, which may cause public health problems. This study determines the microbiological quality of edible vegetable oils being produced and marketed in Gondar City, Northwest Ethiopia, in 2021. A laboratory-based cross-sectional study design was conducted from May to July 2021 in Gondar City. A simple random sampling technique was used to collect 17 edible vegetable oil samples. Aseptically collected samples were analyzed in the microbiology lab room. The microbiological quality of vegetable oil was assessed using standard microbiological procedures and techniques. The collected data were entered into a Microsoft Excel 2016 spreadsheet and Stata Version 14. A non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test was used to assess significant variation. Seventeen edible vegetable oil samples were examined and found to contain a varying number of bacteria, yeast, and molds. Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella Pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were the identified bacteria, whereas Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, and Aspergillus fumigatus were the identified fungi. Total coliform and fecal coliform isolates were also identified in the oil samples. A level of microbial contamination that has public health importance was observed in some of the oil samples analyzed, and the isolated microorganisms indicate unhygienic handling, processing, and storage practices in the oil production and market sites. The introduction of strict rules, regulations, and updated manufacturing technologies and processes to ensure food safety and quality is needed.

Comparison of deodorized post-fermentation corn oil to commercial corn germ oil.

Due to the distinct production method, post-fermentation corn oil is considered a non-standard corn oil. This study investigates deodorisation as the last refining step of the process. The resulting deodorised post-fermentation oil was tested and its quality was compared with commercially available corn oils. In was found that the quality of the obtained oil was similar to corn germ oil in terms of such parameters as iodine value, acid value and oxidative stability. Interestingly, despite the high-temperature of the refining process, it retained a significant content of bioactive compounds such as phytosterols (above 900 mg/100g). Sensory analysis revealed that, the oil possessed an acceptable flavour and aroma, suggesting its potential as an alternative raw material for the production of edible oil in the future.

Physicochemical characterization of seeds and aril of Renealmia aromatica (Aubl.) Griseb

The Amazon has great biodiversity, being inhabited by indigenous peoples since time immemorial, as well as being home to traditional farmers, settlers, riverine dwellers, people responsible, in large part, for the conservation of biodiversity through the cultivation and storage of grains, tubers, roots and seeds. Among the numerous species cultivated and managed by the Amazonian peoples, we approach, in this work, the species Renealmia aromatica (Aubl.) Griseb., belonging to the Zingiberaceae family. The objective of this article is to present physicochemical aspects of the fruits of Renealmia aromatica (Aubl.) Griseb. aiming to emphasize its alimentary potential and nutritional value.This work consisted of harvesting the fruits of mother plants located in the experimental garden of the Universidade Federal do Acre – UFAC. The analyzes were carried out at the Unidade de Tecnologia de Alimentos – Utal of UFAC – Campus Rio Branco. The variables analyzed were protein, ascorbic acid (vitamin C), titratable acidity, moisture and ash (fixed mineral residue) according to the methods for physicochemical analysis of foods from the Instituto Adolfo Lutz. In the aril and in the seed, protein contents of 7.97% and 6.67% were found, respectively. As for lipids, the highest concentration was observed in the seeds, with a content of 6.76%. The aril showed a satisfactory level of vitamin C (182,81 mg/100g). With a high concentration of lipid, the seeds had a total caloric value of 335,56 kcal/100g. Thus, the seeds and arils of R. aromatica have alimentary and nutritional potential, being the seeds used for the production of edible oil or condiment, and the aril, rich in vitamin C, used in alimentation. This, although already used in food, is still restricted to indigenous peoples and traditional communities.

Production of value-added cosmetic products from cold-pressed Helianthus annuus L. oil and pulp

Recycling, in its literal sense, is the recycling of obsolete recyclable waste materials into manufacturing processes as raw materials through various recycling methods. We can say that a lot of waste is generated in environmental and industrial terms. Sunflower (Helianthus annus L.) is one of the major oil crops grown in the world for the production of edible and biodiesel oil. A large number of plant and raw material wastes, especially those used in food products, are recycled into cleaning, health, cosmetic and industrial products. In this study, the cold-pressed oil and pulp obtained from the seeds of the sunflower plant were evaluated and transformed into an added-value cosmetic product. Especially the fact that it contains other valuable compounds such as phenolic compounds, fatty acids, fibers, vitamins, minerals and polyphenols increases the popularity of the value-added product. Within the scope of our work, we produced two value-added products. These products are creams containing sunflower oil, which has nourishing, moisturizing and protective properties and the other product is a skin mask containing sunflower pulp. As our university specializes in added-value agricultural products, our product production is increasing day by day.

Perspective of Using Apple Processing Waste for the Production of Edible Oil with Health-Promoting Properties

(1) Background: The effective management of waste and by-products generated in the food industry helps development and implementation of ranges of health-promoting products. The manufacturing of apple juice and cider results in the generation of large quantities of apple pomace. (2) Methods: This paper outlines the concept of a technological process for industrial-scale production of edible oil with a health-promoting fatty acids profile using dried apple pomace as a raw material. (3) Results: Described approach allows for innovative and profitable industrial-scale utilization of the pomace generated from apple juice production. This paper presents a new technological line for apple seed separation intended for oil pressing. (4) Conclusions: The new technological approach could increase the production of apple seed oil. Because of the growing needs in managing post-production waste and by-products, apple seed oil produced from apple pomace on an industrial scale may become a new, attractive product in the functional food market. The fatty acids profile of apple seed oil is high in polyunsaturated fatty acids and can beneficially influence health. The technology outlined here is in the conceptual phase and requires further research.

Plant leaf disease detection using hybrid feature extraction techniques

Excessive yield losses are due to delayed identification of leaf diseases, resulting in lower farmer revenue. To address this, early and precise detection methods are crucial. Sunflower, a vital commercial crop in India for edible oil production, faces issues like leaf blight, downy mildew, powdery mildew, and leaf spot. Our research aims to create an algorithm that effectively identifies these diseases using hybrid feature extraction techniques. We compiled sunflower leaf images from village databases and farm visits. Initially, color images were converted to grayscale, and the noise was reduced using Gaussian filtering during image pre-processing. Disease-affected areas were segmented using edge-based approaches. Hybrid feature extraction was then employed to encompass color and texture-related attributes. The K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN) algorithm facilitated disease classification. The proposed algorithm’s performance was benchmarked against SVM, RF and DT classifiers. Remarkably, our algorithm achieved exceptional accuracy: 98% for leaf blight, 97.3% for downy mildew, 95% for powdery mildew, and 96.5% for leaf spot detection. These results underscore the algorithm’s effectiveness in combating plant diseases and enhancing agricultural productivity.

Formation of glycidol fatty acid esters and 3-monochloro-1,2-propanediol fatty acid esters in heated foods

Glycidol fatty acid esters (GEs) and 3-monochloro-1,2-propanediol fatty acid esters (3-MCPDEs) are formed at high temperatures during edible oil production. In this study, ground meat (beef, pork, and chicken) patties, cookies, and cupcakes were heated under various conditions using a temperature-controlled device to determine the amount of GEs and 3-MCPDEs produced. GE and 3-MCPDE were not detected in any meat heated in the oven (250 °C). When heating all meats using a muffle furnace, GEs were not detected at 400 °C but they were detected at 500 °C and 600 °C. At 600 °C, 3-MCPDEs were detected in all meats. When cookie and cupcake doughs prepared with rapeseed oil were heated in the oven, GEs were formed in both samples, reaching a maximum at 210 °C. 3-MCPDEs were detected only in cookies, reaching its maximum at 250 °C. The percentage of each GE in heated cookies and cupcakes was related to the fatty acid composition of the rapeseed oil. These results suggest that the formation of GEs and 3-MCPDEs may be affected by food ingredients, cooking device, and heating time, as well as heating temperature.

Research and development expenditures, technology spillovers, and green productivity in agriculture: an empirical analysis

ABSTRACT We study the relationship between technology spillovers from trade, domestic research and development (R&D) spending, and the growth in green total factor productivity within the agricultural sector. An empirical illustration is provided using a sample of 48 countries involved in China’s Belt and Road Initiative from 2000 to 2019. Our findings highlight the important role of agricultural imports as a positive driving force behind green productivity growth, while the impact of domestic R&D expenditures on agricultural productivity lacks statistical significance in our sample. Furthermore, we find that trade-related technological spillovers drive environmentally sustainable agricultural growth in economically developed nations, but this effect is weaker in developing countries. Conversely, greater domestic investment in agricultural research and development programs helps promote green productivity growth in relatively rich countries, but its influence diminishes in middle-income and developing countries. Lastly, a positive impact of importing vegetable and edible oil products on productivity is observed.