Edible Caterpillars Research Articles

Harvesting modalities and periods of edible caterpillars in the Republic of the Congo

Harvesting modalities and periods of edible caterpillars in the Republic of the Congo

Authoritative Taxonomic Databases for Progress in Edible Insect and Host Plant Inventories

Insects play a vital role for humans. Apart from well-known ecosystem services (e.g., pollination, biological control, decomposition), they also serve as food for humans. An increasing number of research reports (Mitsuhashi 2017, Jongema 2018) indicate that entomophagy (the practice of eating insects by humans), is a long-standing practice in many countries around the globe. In Africa notably, more than 524 insects have been reported to be consumed by different ethnic groups, serving as a cheap, ecofriendly and renewable source of nutrients on the continent. Given the global recession due to the pandemic (COVID-19) and the threat induced to food security and food production systems, edible insects are of special interest in African countries, particularly the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), where they have been reported as vital to sustain food security. Indeed, to date, the broadest lists of edible insects of the DRC reported (a maximum) 98 insects identified at species level (Monzambe 2002, Mitsuhashi 2017, Jongema 2018). But these lists are hampered by spelling mistakes or by redundancy. An additional problem is raised by insects only known by their vernacular names (ethnospecies) as local languages (more than 240 living ones) do not necessarily give rigorous information due to polysemy concerns. Based on the aforementioned challenges, entomophagy practices and edible insect species reported for DRC (from the independence year, 1960, to date) have been reviewed using four authoritative taxonomic databases: Catalogue of Life (CoL), Integrated Taxonomic Information System, Global Biodiversity Information Facility taxonomic backbone, and the Global Lepidoptera Names Index. Results confirm the top position of edible caterpillars (Lepidoptera, 50.8%) followed by Orthoptera (12.5%), Coleoptera and Hymenoptera (10.0% each). A total of 120 edible species (belonging to eighty genera, twenty-nine families and nine orders of insects) have been listed and mapped on a national scale. Likewise, host plants of edible insects have been inventoried after checking (using CoL, Plant Resources of Tropical Africa, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species). The host plant diversity is dominated by multi-use trees belonging to Fabaceae (34.4%) followed by Phyllanthaceae (10.6%) and Meliaceae (4.9%). However, data indicated endangered (namely Millettia laurentii, Prioria balsamifera ) or critically endangered (Autranella congolensis) host plant species that call for conservation strategies. To the best of our knowledge, aforementioned results are the very first reports of such findings in Africa. Moreover, given issues encountered during data compilation and during cross-checking of scientific names, a call was made for greater collaboration between local people and expert taxonomists (through citizen science), in order to unravel unidentified ethnospecies. Given the challenge of information technology infrastructure in Africa, such a target could be achieved thanks to mobile apps. Likewise, a further call should be made for: bеtter synchronization of taxonomic databases, the need of qualitative scientific photographs in taxonomic databases, and additional data (i.e., conservational status, proteins or DNA sequences notably) as edible insects need to be rigorously identified and durably managed. bеtter synchronization of taxonomic databases, the need of qualitative scientific photographs in taxonomic databases, and additional data (i.e., conservational status, proteins or DNA sequences notably) as edible insects need to be rigorously identified and durably managed. Indeed, these complementary data are very crucial, given the limitations and issues of conventional/traditional identification methods based on morphometric or dichotomous keys and the lack of voucher specimens in many African museums and/or collections. This could be achieved by QR (Quick Response) coding insect species and centralizing data about edible insects in a main authoritative taxonomic database whose role is undebatable, as edible insects are today earmarked as nutrient-rich source of proteins, fat, vitamins and fiber to mitigate food insecurity and poor diets, which are an aggravating factor for the impact of COVID-19.

The yield of edible caterpillars Imbrasia oyemensis and Cirina forda from timber trees logged on concessions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: A contribution to managing tropical forests for multiple resources

Local people in rural areas of the tropics depend on forests for a range of food resources, including protein-rich edible caterpillars, among them Imbrasia oyemensis and Cirina forda, which are important for nutrition and income. Sapelli (Entandrophragma cylindricum), the African mahogany, and Tali (Erythrophleum suaveolens) are food sources for these caterpillars; they are also among the most important timber species harvested from Congo Basin forests. This study quantified the yield of caterpillars from harvestable and precommercial sizes of trees of these two timber species to better understand the impact of logging on the availability of edible caterpillars to local people, and the implications for managing both timber and non-timber resources in industrial timber concessions. Caterpillars were collected and weighed beneath 50 Sapelli trees 23–190 cm DBH and 170 Tali trees 22–174 cm DBH on two timber concessions, from mid-August to mid-September, over two years. Caterpillars were found to descend from the trees during 5 days each year, and quantities varied between years. In both sample years, yields were significantly higher from harvestable trees larger than the minimum cutting diameter than from precommercial trees. Each harvestable Sapelli tree (≥ 80 cm DBH), yielded an average of 11.3 kg fresh weight of I. oyemensis year-1; smaller, precommercial trees yielded 5.4 kg tree−1year−1. Each harvestable Tali tree (≥ 60 cm DBH) yielded an average of 9.1 kg of C. forda year−1, as compared to 5.7 kg tree−1year−1 from precommercial trees. This means that industrial timber harvesting, which removes trees larger than the minimum cutting diameter, has a disproportionate effect on the availability of caterpillars. However, trees below the minimum cutting diameter also yield caterpillars, and may occur at higher densities. Guidelines that limit harvesting on steep slopes or near watercourses, or that call for retaining large trees as seed sources, also safeguard caterpillar yields. However, multiple resource management should consider proactive measures, which could include zoning areas near villages as sources of edible caterpillars, and protecting those trees from logging.

Forage preference identification of wildGynanisa maja (Klug, 1836) and perspectives for improved livelihoods in Zambia

Gynanisa maja (Klung, 1836) is the wild edible caterpillar of a speckled emperor moth belonging to the order Lepidoptera and the family Saturniidae. It is a species of nutritional and economic importance and provides food security at household level during its harvesting season. Despite the significant value this caterpillar has, it is harvested seasonally and harvested in unsustainable ways such as cutting down of its food plants resulting in habitat destruction likely to lead into species extinction consequently, threatening food security. Therefore, this study aimed at identifying the preferred food plants of wildG. maja that will help in the definition of the actions needed for conservation of theG. maja moth consequently contribute positively towards combating food and nutrition insecurity. The household survey was carried out in 61 villages from five clusters of Luampa district to determine the knowledge of people on the food plants ofG. maja and the structured questionnaire was used to collect data via face to face interview. A total of 400 respondents participated and five food plants belonging to the family Fabaceae were mentioned which include;Julbernadia paniculata (Benth.) Troupin,Erythrophleum africanum (Welw. ex Benth.) Harms,Brachystegia longifolia Benth,Albizia antunesiana Harms andBrachystegia spiciformis Benth. All (100% of respondents) mentionedJ. paniculata (Benth.) Troupin as the primary preferred food plant ofG. maja while others indicated the other four food plants as secondary or alternatives. Based on these findings, the food plant likeJ. paniculata can be utilised for embarking on farmingG. maja which will result in the conservation ofG. maja and its food plant.

Addressing Potential Conflict Using Participatory Mapping: Collection of Forest Foods From Timber Trees Around Industrial Concessions in Cameroon

Extensive areas of Africa’s humid tropical lowland forests have been allocated to timber concessions, but are also inhabited by villagers who obtain resources from the forest. Approximately 61% of timber species in the Congo Basin also yield locally used non-timber forest products (NTFP). Among these are fruits and oil from Moabi (Baillonella toxisperma), and edible caterpillars from Sapelli (Entandrophragma cylindricum) and Tali (Erythrophleum suaveolens). Participatory mapping was used to understand whether logging affects the availability of these food resources to men and women in villages near timber concessions in two areas of Cameroon. Mapping of collection trees and interviews of 20 male and 20 female collectors, in four villages near two logging concessions showed that during one-day collecting trips people walk an average of 2.7 km (± 1.42) to trees where they collect these resources. Food resources are typically collected by both men and women, but men travel further to specific trees, sometimes combining this with hunting excursions further into the forest. Only 15% of the collection trees were located within the logging concessions. However, 72% of Sapelli, 81% of Moabi and 100% of Tali trees from which food resources were collected were larger than their legal felling diameters, meaning that logging could jeopardize the supply of foods from these species. Prioritizing food values over timber values of trees within a certain radius of villages, and excluding them from logging, would safeguard villagers’ access to these food resources. Already, negotiations between villagers and concessionaires have been successful. Many of the mapped collection trees occurred in agroforestry areas delineated by the concessionaire for the use of villagers; another concessionaire had suspended felling of Moabi trees in response to requests by the villagers. However, an extensive and expanding local logging sector on community forests and other lands outside of industrial timber concessions means that negotiations are also needed even within communities, to address the conflicts between obtaining either a one-time financial windfall from felling a tree (usually a male interest); and ensuring ongoing periodic harvests of foods (typically a priority of women, but also of local Baka pygmies).

The nutritional role of insects as food: a case study of ‘chitoumou’ (Cirina butyrospermi), an edible caterpillar in rural Burkina Faso

Insects are frequently promoted as a nutritious food. Yet they are a diverse class, and few data are available on their dietary role. In this paper, we present novel data on the nutritional role of ‘chitoumou’, the edible caterpillarCirina butyrospermi, in the diet of rural smallholder farmers in southwestern Burkina Faso. We collected detailed dietary data via 24-h recall interviews (n=64), which we conducted with women who were predominantly responsible for making decisions on food preparation for their households (n=16) during and out of caterpillar season. We found that ethnicity did not predict caterpillar consumption. Diets that contained caterpillars were richer in protein (P<0.05) and calcium (P<0.05), key nutrients for combating malnutrition in this region. We conclude that edible insects play an important nutritional role among smallholder communities in southwestern Burkina Faso, but that more data are required to confirm the bioavailability of nutrients found in caterpillars, the effect of the cooking process on caterpillar nutritional quality and consequent health outcomes for people that consume them. To inform policy and the way in which insects are promoted as food, it is imperative that further research is done to quantify the nutritional role of edible insects in current human diets.

Mitochondrial genomes and polymorphic regions of Gonimbrasia belina and Gynanisa maja (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae), two important edible caterpillars of Southern Africa

Mopane worms are the vernacular designation for the edible caterpillars of the African emperor moths Gonimbrasia belina and Gynanisa maja. Both species, particularly G. belina, are widely harvested in Southern Africa, and their populations are declining. Despite their commercial, nutritional, and cultural importance, their genetic data are currently unavailable. We sequenced two complete mitogenomes from each species using Ion Torrent technology, and identified informative markers in the complete mitogenomes of the two species for use in future studies. Comparing the conspecific mitogenomes allowed the identification of regions with high nucleotide diversity in ATP6, ND1, ND4, ND5, ND6, and CYTB genes. The final panels of markers will allow for the survey of 3117 bp in G. belina, and 3990 bp in Gy. maja. Phylogenetic reconstruction within the family Saturniidae recovered the tribe Bunaeini as monophyletic and basal to Saturniidae, and the tribe Attacini as a monophyletic clade nested within the tribe Saturniini. The G. belina and Gy. maja mitogenomes are the first representatives of African Saturniidae, a taxonomic group with relevance as a food resource on the continent. This study represents the first step towards assessing the genetic diversity, population structure, and phylogeography of African edible caterpillars.

Edible caterpillars in central Cameroon: host plants, value, harvesting, and availability

ABSTRACTCaterpillars are among the most consumed, traded and economically valuable edible insects in the tropics, where they are excellent sources of proteins and fats for many indigenous peoples. Despite their contribution to global food security, little is known about the species traded as well as their host plants. Through market surveys, semi-structured interviews and field observations, we identified the edible caterpillars’ species commercialized in the Centre region of Cameroon and their host plants, estimated weights and retail values, examined perceptions of change over time, and discussed implications for management. Eleven species of caterpillars and 18 host trees were identified. Seven species accounted for a total of 69482 kg worth US$163,565 being traded annually by interviewed vendors (N = 32). Caterpillars were sold either fresh or smoked, and prices varied significantly among species and urban/rural markets. All hosts were trees from lowland rainforests, most having multiple uses (e.g. medicine, timber). Most vendors reported a decrease in caterpillar species’ abundance, mainly attributed to logging of host trees and climatic changes. Future management efforts could be centered on promoting semi-domestication of edible caterpillars and raising awareness on cultivation techniques of host trees.

Imbrasia obscura, an Edible Caterpillar of Tropical Africa: Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value

Imbrasia obscura, une chenille comestible d’Afrique tropicale: composition chimique et valeur alimentaire. La consommation d’Imbrasia obscura (Butler, 1878) a ete citee dans une douzaine de livres et d’articles concernant cinq pays differents, a savoir le Cameroun, la Republique Centrafricaine, la Republique du Congo, la Republique Democratique du Congo et l’Angola. Cette etude presente, pour la premiere fois, une information concernant deux themes meconnus, la composition chimique et la valeur alimentaire de l’espece. La composition chimique montre que c’est une bonne source de proteines et de lipides ayant cinq acides amines essentiels (threonine, tyrosine + phenylalanine, histidine et tryptophane) et d’importantes quantites d’acides gras essentiels. Les elements mineraux comme le calcium, le phosphore, le magnesium et le potassium sont egalement presents en quantite appreciable. Il y a peu de sodium dont la consommation humaine est souvent mais pas toujours en exces. La tres haute teneur en acide alpha-linolenique contribue tres significativement au faible rapport ω-6/ω-3. Par consequent, cette chenille est un aliment qui peut etre recommande pour la consommation humaine. Compte-tenu de sa haute valeur nutritionnelle et de ses bonnes potentialites commerciales dans les zones ou la malnutrition est commune, l’elevage de cette espece devrait etre encourage.

Effects of defoliation by the edible caterpillar \u201cchitoumou\u201d (Cirina butyrospermi) on harvests of shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) and growth of maize (Zea mays)

Edible insects are found in agricultural systems worldwide, and are an important source of food and income. However, many edible insects are also pests of important food crops, which raises the question of how far their presence might be costly to farmers in terms of reduced crop yields. In this study we aimed to understand the impact of defoliation of shea trees by edible caterpillars on yields of shea and maize in a mixed agroforestry system in Burkina Faso, West Africa. We collected field data in two consecutive years. Our results suggest that tree defoliation by caterpillars has no effect on shea fruit yields, and that defoliation may have a positive effect on maize productivity. We conclude that this appears to be an example of an agricultural system in which nutritionally and economically important plants and insects are both harvested by humans without risking yield reductions of harvested plants.

Edible caterpillars of Imbrasia truncata and Imbrasia epimethea contain lipids and proteins of high potential for nutrition

Imbrasia truncata and I. epimethea caterpillars were evaluated as dietary protein and lipid sources. They contained approximately 7.0 g/100 g fresh weight (FW) of lipids and 20.0 g/100 g FW of proteins calculed with determined nitrogen to protein conversion factors: 6.01 ± 0.21 and 6.27 ± 0.15 for I. truncata and I. epimethea, respectively. Unsaturated fatty acids represented about 2.63 ± 0.21 g/100 g FW for I. truncata and 3.24 ± 0.21 g/100 g FW for I. epimethea, with α-linolenic acid as major fatty acid (around 1.88 ± 0.15 g/100 g FW for I. truncata 2.17 ± 0.13 g/100 g FW for I. epimethea) and very low n-6/n-3 ratios: 0.15 (I. truncata) and 0.27 (I. epimethea). Polar lipids (phospholipids and glycolipids + sulfolipids), representing between 4 and 6% of lipids, contained little amounts of arachidonic acid (C20:4n-6). The major tocopherol isomer was α−tocopherol in I. truncata (0.52 ± 0.08 g/100 g FW) and γ−tocopherol in I. epimethea (1.00 ± 0.08 g/100 g FW). The proteins of both insect included all indispensable amino acids at amounts (mg/g protein) higher than the indispensable amino acid requirement patterns recommended by WHO/FAO/UNU (2007). In conclusion, Imbrasia caterpillars exhibit a great nutritional potential due to the presence of good quality proteins and healthy fat

Perceptions of ecosystem services provision performance in the face of climate change among communities in Bobirwa sub-district, Botswana

PurposeBetween 2006 and 2016, local communities in semi-arid Bobirwa sub-district in the Limpopo Basin part of Botswana had endured notable fluctuations in the delivery of critical ecosystem services. These changes have been coupled with adverse effects on local people’s livelihood options and well-being. However, a few such studies have focussed on the semi-arid to arid landscapes. This study therefore aims to provide recent knowledge and evidence of consequences of environmental change on semi-arid arid landscapes and communities.MethodologyTo examine these recent changes in key ecosystem services, the authors conducted six participatory mapping processes, eight key informant interviews and several rapid scoping appraisals in three study villages. The analyses were centred on changes in seasonal quantities, seasonality, condition of ecosystem service sites, distance to ecosystem service sites and total area providing these services. Drivers of change in the delivery of key ecosystem services and the associated adverse impacts on human well-being of these recent changes in bundles of ecosystem services delivered were also analyzed.FindingsResults show that adverse weather conditions, drought frequency, changes in land-use and/or land-cover together with unsustainable harvesting because of human influx on local resources have intensified in the past decade. There was circumstantial evidence that these drivers have resulted in adverse changes in quantities and seasonality of key ecosystem services such as edible Mopane caterpillars, natural pastures, wild fruits and cultivated crops. Similarly, distance to, condition and total area of sites providing some of the key ecosystem services such as firewood and natural pastures changed adversely. These adverse changes in the key ecosystem services were shown to increasingly threaten local livelihoods and human well-being.Research limitations/implicationsThis paper discusses the importance of engaging rural communities in semi-arid areas in a participatory manner and how such information can provide baseline information for further research. The paper also shows the utility of such processes and information toward integrating community values and knowledge into decisions regarding the management and utilization of local ecosystem services under a changing climate in data-poor regions such as the Bobirwa sub-district of Botswana. However, the extent to which this is possible depends on the decision makers’ willingness to support local initiatives through existing government structures and programmes.Originality/valueThis study shows the importance of engaging communities in a participatory manner to understand changes in local ecosystem services considering their unique connection with the natural environment. This is a critical step for decision makers toward integrating community values in the management and utilization of ecosystem services under a changing climate as well as informing more sustainable adaptive responses in semi-arid areas. However, the extent to which decision makers can integrate such findings to inform more sustainable responses to declining capacity of local ecosystems in semi-arid areas depends on how they value the bottom-up approach of gaining local knowledge as well as their willingness to support local initiatives through existing government structures and programmes.

Perceived nutrition benefits and socio-demographic factors affecting consumption of forest foods in eastern and southern Cameroon

African forests act as sources of both plant and animal foods that provide significant amounts of nutrients and healthy boosting bioactive compounds. This study investigated the relationship between knowledge, perceptions and socio-demographic attributes towards consumption of forest foods. A total of 279 females in charge of decision making with respect to food preparation, were randomly selected from 12 villages in southern and eastern Cameroon, and interviewed using researcher administered questionnaires. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to identify the socio demographic factors and perceptions affecting consumption of forest foods. Baillonella toxisperma (African pearwood) (98%), Irvingia gabonesis (bush mango) (81%) and Trichoscypha abut (Mvout) (70%) were identified as the most nutritious foods. Among the animal forest foods, bush meat (11%) and Imbrasia spp. (edible caterpillars) (10%) were identified as the most nutritious. Consumption of forest foods was higher among polygamous families and also positively related to length of stay in the forest area, as well as age of female respondents. Education had an inverse relationship with use of forest foods. Perception towards the nutritional value of forest foods were also found to positively influence consumption of forest foods. Since negative perceptions were found to influence consumption, there is need to invest in awareness campaigns to strengthen the current knowledge levels among the study population. Key Words: Consumption, indigenous foods, perceptions

An inventory of Vhavenḓa useful plants

An inventory and analysis of the general uses of plants by the Vhavenḓa, a cultural group who historically occupied the region known as Venḓa, currently referred to as the Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa, are presented. Information on plant uses was gathered through a literature review and interviews conducted amongst Tshivenḓa-speaking rural communities in the Vhembe District. The aim of the study was to document all Vhavenḓa useful plants, i.e., all plants of cultural and practical importance in fulfilling the everyday needs of the people. A total of 574 plant species from 355 genera and 121 families was recorded. In addition 897 vernacular names have been recorded, of which 224 (25%) is published here for the first time. The list includes 189 trees, 143 shrubs, 170 herbs, 44 climbers, 21 grasses, four sedges, one parasite and two epiphytes. The number of species in the main use categories are as follow: medicine (384), vegetables (128), edible fruits (123), firewood (101), craftwork (93), construction (91), magic (45), beverages (34), cordage (31), ornamental (26), shade (22), fodder (16), birdlime or rubber (14), famine foods (11), snuff ingredient (11), edible caterpillars feeding on leaves (10), dyes and leather tanning (eight), live fence (seven), vegetable condiments (six) and fish poisons (six). Minor uses include edible seeds, edible cooked tubers, edible flower nectar, ritual purposes, edible gum, edible root tubers, edible rhizomes, edible gums, musical flutes, edible nuts, edible corn, edible leaf sap, soda for cooking vegetables, coffee substitutes, toothbrushes, polish, cosmetic oil, arrow poisons, insects repellents, soap substitutes, adhesives, toys and others. The top ten plant families i.e., those contributing the highest number of useful plant species are Fabaceae/Leguminosae (64 spp.), Asteraceae (33 spp.), Malvaceae s.l. (32 spp.), Apocynaceae s.l. (24 spp.), Euphorbiaceae (22 spp.), Poaceae (21 spp.), Rubiaceae (20 spp.), Solanaceae (20 spp.), Amaranthaceae (19 spp.) and Cucurbitaceae (18 spp.). The data is not only a contribution to the cultural heritage of the Vhavenḓa, but also of considerable scientific and practical interest. It provides the basic information that researchers can use to compare historical and contemporary biocultural plant-use patterns in southern Africa, as well as in controlled future studies to test the efficacy/merits of specific uses.

Can the production of wild forest foods be sustained in timber concessions? Logging and the availability of edible caterpillars hosted by sapelli ( Entandrophragma cylindricum) and tali ( Erythrophleum suaveolens ) trees in the Democratic Republic of Congo

Abstract Sapelli (Entandrophragma cylindricum) and tali (Erythrophleum suaveolens) are among the most important timber species harvested from Congo Basin forests. They also host edible caterpillars, Imbrasia oyemensis and Cirina forda, respectively, which are important to the nutrition and income of rural and urban populations. This study evaluated the density of these tree species within a 10 km radius around each of 4 villages and in the 2012 annual cutting areas of two timber concessions in the region of Kisangani (DRC). Sapelli and tali trees ≥20 cm dbh and their stumps were identified and measured on 21 five ha plots around each village and 20 five ha plots on each concession. Around villages and on concessions, sapelli trees occurred at densities of 0.048 ± 0.008 harvestable trees (≥80 cm dbh) ha−1 and 0.135 ± 0.019 precommercial trees ha−1. Harvestable tali trees (≥60 cm dbh) were seven times more abundant at 0.347 ± 0.032 ha−1, while precommercial tali trees occurred at densities of 0.329 ± 0.033 trees ha−1. Between 25% and 40% of the harvestable sapelli trees had been logged as compared to

Ecological diversity of edible insects and their potential contribution to household food security in Haut‐Katanga Province, Democratic Republic of Congo

AbstractDemocratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo) has a wide diversity of edible insects making it one of the most important biodiversity hot spots in Africa. The aim of this study was to give the first insight into the food plant range, seasonal availability of edible insects, community preference and willingness to consume them. The study revealed a list of eleven edible insect species belonging to four families. Twenty‐six plant species were recorded as food plants of nine edible caterpillar species. Seasonal availability of these insects coincided with the rainy season and was strongly linked to relatively high level of consumption. The caterpillars Elaphrodes lactea Gaede, Lobobunaea saturnus Fabricius and Cinabra hyperbius (Westwood) as well as the termites Macrotermes falciger Gerstäcker were the most dominant species of edible insects preferred and consumed among the different communities. Our study demonstrates that entomophagy is a common practice among the ethnic populations with married, tertiary and university‐level individuals recording significantly higher consumption of edible caterpillars. Populations between the ages of 18 and 45 years as well as the Bemba tribe were also more actively involved in entomophagy. Further research would be necessary to exploit edible insect biodiversity and ethno‐entomophagy and initiate actions for food plant conservation in DR Congo.

Do logging concessions decrease the availability to villagers of foods from timber trees? A quantitative analysis for Moabi (Baillonella toxisperma), Sapelli (Entandrophragma cylindricum) and Tali (Erythrophleum suaveolens) in Cameroon

Many species of timber trees in Cameroon are exploited by logging companies for timber and by forest-dependent communities for non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Quantitative analyses were conducted within and near forest concessions in Cameroon to determine the density of multiple use tree species that provide both timber for industry and foods consumed by local populations (fruit and oil or edible caterpillars), and how this has been affected by logging. Individuals of the three species (Moabi, Baillonella toxisperma; Sapelli, Entandrophragma cylindricum; and Tali, Erythrophleum suaveolens), including their stumps, were identified and measured on 5ha (100m×500m) sample plots around 4 villages and in 2 concessions. Around each village 21 sample plots, stratified by distance, were laid out along three transects extending 10km towards the concession, each oriented 45° from the other. In concessions, 20 plots were established within the 2012 cutting unit after timber harvesting, using a stratified random system. Moabi trees occurred at the lowest densities: around villages, 22.8±3.3/100ha of precommercial individuals and 5.0±1.4/100ha of individuals of harvestable size (⩾80cmdbh); on concessions, 7.5±2.4 precommercial trees/100ha, and 0–2.0±1.4/100ha harvestable individuals. Densities of Sapelli trees were not significantly different between villages and concessions, averaging 32.6±3.8/100ha and 37.5±5.5/100ha, respectively, for precommercial sizes and 9.5±2.2/100ha and 6±1.6/100ha, respectively, for harvestable trees (⩾100cmdbh). Pre-commercial Tali trees occurred at lower densities (3.8±0.9/100ha) around villages, as compared to 11.5±3.1/100ha on concessions. Harvestable Tali trees (⩾60cmdbh) occurred at the same densities around villages and on concessions (56.0±7.2/100ha). Half, or more, of commercial-sized trees of caterpillar-hosting species were left standing after harvest on concessions (89–94% of Tali; 50–79% of Sapelli), reflecting constraints due to timber quality, market demand and inaccessibility. No harvestable Moabi trees were logged from the 2012 cutting areas, reflecting agreements between communities and concessionaires to leave them for fruit and oil, but densities were so low it will be important that villagers conserve those around their villages. Stumps of all three species were found around villages, revealing that mechanisms for negotiation are also needed among villagers with interests in either timber or non-timber resources obtained from the same tree species.

Nutritional Significance of the Edible Insect,Hemijana variegataRothschild (Lepidoptera: Eupterotidae), of the Blouberg Region, Limpopo, South Africa

Hemijana variegata Rothschild, an edible caterpillar of Limpopo, South Africa, is little known to science but is a delicacy in the region. Harvesters believe the caterpillar is nourishing but there are no data on its nutritional value. This study reports on the proximate nutrient analysis of sun-dried (traditionally prepared) specimens and specimens oven-dried at 60 °C for three different time periods (24, 48 and 72 h). For the vitamin content analysis, fresh caterpillars were used. Drying at 60 °C for 24 h produced the highest energy value at 552 kcal/100 g while traditionally prepared caterpillars produce 306 kcal/100 g. The caterpillar was found to be rich in protein varying between 51 and 54 % for oven-dried and 44.5 % for traditionally prepared caterpillars. The fat content of 20 % is favourable, as is the percentage ash (10.47 % for traditionally prepared caterpillars), indicating elevated levels of nutrients. In fresh caterpillars, vitamin content was low for vitamin A (0.02 mg/100 g) and vitamin B...

Nutritive value of Lepidoptara litoralia (edible caterpillar) in in Jos Nigeria: Implication for food security and poverty alleviation

Insects and caterpillars are traditionally important foods in many cultures in Nigeria. Their potential is seriously being considered in food security and poverty alleviation strategies. The nutrient composition of some commonly eaten insects especially in South-western Nigeria has been determined and reported. The nutritional and economic potentials of the abundant edible caterpillars in the Northern region particularly in Jos, Plateau State are yet to be ascertained and fully realised. Lepidoptara litoralia, a defoliator of Isobelinia doka, is commonly found and consumed by many indigenous ethnic groups in Jos Plateau State, Nigeria. The objective of the study was to evaluate the nutritional and economic potentials of L. litoralia as a strategy to mitigate food insecurity and alleviate poverty. The live caterpillars were hand-picked from bushes in the month of September, and processed under laboratory conditions according to local methods used by the indigenes. The processed sample was analysed for its proximate nutrient composition, amino acids and mineral profiles using standard procedures. Its commercial value was estimated through oral interviews with local women who trade the commodity with a view to popularize it as a strategy for food security and poverty alleviation among the local people. Analysis of the processed (ready-to-eat) Lepidoptara litoralia showed that they contained 59.8% crude protein, 17.0% fat, 20.2% Nitrogen Free Extract (NFE), 3.1% crude fibre, 4.3% ash and caloric value of 473.0kcal. Important mineral elements found in moderate quantities included sodium, chloride, iron, zinc, calcium and phosphorus. Magnesium and copper were found to be low. All the common amino acids with the exception of tryptophan were detected, and values ranged between 0.8g/100g protein and 12.5g/100g protein for histidine and glutamic acid, respectively. The estimated daily income from trading of the commodity by the indigenes was put at USD3 – 4/day or USD21 - 26/week. It was obvious that trading on processed L. litoralia can be a good source of additional income for families since no initial capital is invested. The nutrient composition of Lepidoptara litoralia was found to be comparable to those of conventional animal source foods such as beef and fish. It is concluded that consumption of the caterpillars could add variety and security to staple foods of the indigenous communities. When properly harnessed and large scale production and commercialization are explored, it can be a good source of livelihood for families thereby alleviating poverty.

Microbiological quality of an edible caterpillar of an emperor moth, Bunaea alcinoe

An investigation into the microbiological status of processed caterpillar of a lepidopteran,Bunaea alcinoe revealed the presence of six genera of bacteria and three genera of moulds including one species of yeast. The microbial population of 4.49 × 107 (bacteria) and 9.5 × 106 (fungi) indicates contamination of the product. Pseudomonas aeruginosaand Proteus mirabilis are food contaminants with high protein contents. P. aeruginosaproduce protease and lipase that catalysis reaction causing degradation of proteins and lipids respectively, resulting in an undesirable flavours in food products. P. mirabilisrarely give rise to food borne infections, but lowers the nutritional quality of contaminated foods. Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus and Escherichia coli produce various toxins associated with food infection and intoxication. Streptococcus mitis is involved in dental caries and periodontal disease when ingested in food. Aspergillus, Penicilliumand Fusarium species elaborate lethal mycotoxins associated with carcinogenicity and nephrotoxicity in humans and animals. Majority of the isolates are soil borne and may have contaminated the product during harvest. Recontamination of the product could arise from poor handling, inadequate temperature of processing and exposure during sun drying. The use of modified atmospheric packaging system is strongly recommended to reduce moisture, microbial contamination and enhanced the shelf life of the nutritious product. Key words: Edible, caterpillar, microbiological quality.