Edible Biomass Research Articles

Sinusoidal LED light recipes can improve rocket edible biomass and reduce electricity costs in indoor growth environments.

Accumulation of edible biomass by crop plants relies on maintenance of a high photosynthetic rates across the photoperiod, with assimilation rate (A) generally responding to increasing light intensity in a hyperbolic fashion. In natural environments light fluctuates greatly over the course of the day, however in Controlled Environmental Agricultural (CEA) systems, light intensity can be supplemented or precisely controlled using LEDs to create near optimum conditions. In such indoor growth environments light is often delivered as a square wave and recommendations to horticulturalists are given in the form of Daily Light Integrals (DLI). However, this does not take into account the slow photosynthetic induction at the start of the photoperiod and the decline of A towards the end of the photoperiod, which has been demonstrated by several previous studies. Square wave light regimes therefore potentially cause suboptimal photosynthetic utilization of the applied lighting and waste electricity. Here we have adapted light recipes to gradually increase and decrease in intensity to take account of these findings. We demonstrate that, utilising a sinusoidal light regime capped at 250 μmol m-2 s-1, it is possible to increase edible biomass of rocket (by ca. 20%) compared to square wave delivered at 250 at the same DLI. Additionally, this can be achieved using less electricity (0.6%), therefore reducing energy costs and improving profitability. We suggest that capping maximum light intensity at 250 µmol m-2 s-1 improves the operating efficiency of PSII photochemistry (Fq'/Fm') also known as the photosynthetic efficiency by maintaining A later in the photoperiod. We show that a higher electron transfer rate (ETR) is maintained in these treatments over the photoperiod compared to higher light intensity caps, resulting in a greater Daily Photochemical Integral (DPI). We attribute this to less NPQ due to a greater sink capacity for the end products of electron transport, ATP and NADPH, as A is kept high for longer.

High Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density Differentially Improves Edible Biomass Space Use Efficacy in Edamame and Dwarf Tomato.

Improving edible biomass space use efficacy (EBSUE) is important for sustainably producing edamame and dwarf tomatoes in plant factories with artificial light. Photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) may increase EBSUE and space use efficacy (SUE). However, no study has quantitatively explained how PPFD affects EBSUE in edamame and dwarf tomatoes. This study aimed to quantitatively validate the effects of PPFD on EBSUE in dwarf tomatoes and edamame and verify whether this effect differs between these crops. The edamame and dwarf tomato cultivars 'Enrei' and 'Micro-Tom', respectively, were cultivated under treatments with PPFDs of 300, 500, and 700 µmol m-2 s-1. The results showed that the EBSUE and SUE increased with increasing PPFD in both crops. The EBSUE increased depending on the increase in SUE, the dry mass ratio of the edible part to the total plant in the edamame, and the SUE only in the dwarf tomatoes. In conclusion, a high PPFD can improve the EBSUE and SUE of edamame and dwarf tomatoes in different ways at the reproductive growth stage. The findings from this study offer valuable information on optimizing space and resource usage in plant factories with artificial light and vertical farms. Additionally, they shed light on the quantitative impact of PPFD on both EBSUE and SUE.

Acclimation of key photosynthetic traits drives edible biomass increases in crop species grown in aquaponics

Sustainable agriculture practices may contribute to increasing food demand while alleviating issues with fertilizer over-use and water availability in traditional agriculture. Aquaponics systems provide plants with a constant supply of nutrient dense water from fish efflux. Root uptake filters the fish efflux and water is recycled back to fish tanks, reducing the water needed to produce both plants and fish. Plants acclimate their physiology and anatomy to changing environments, yet, the degree of acclimation in aquaponics is unknown. We tested if acclimation of leaf physiology and anatomy to constant water and nutrient supply in aquaponics affected edible yield. We measured acclimation of leaf gas exchange (Asat, gsw), photosynthetic capacity (Jmax,Vcmax), stomatal density and chlorophyll production by comparing plants grown in aquaponics or soil for three species: Lactuca sativa (Romaine lettuce), Triticum aestivum (Winter Wheat), and Ocimum basilicum (Basil). We hypothesized that non-limiting nitrogen supply in aquaponics would drive increased production of chlorophyll, increasing electron transport rate (Jmax) and carboxylation rate (Vcmax). Additionally, constant water supply in aquaponics would remove limitations driving stomatal closure, leading to higher photosynthesis rates. We found aquaponics plants produced more chlorophyll, driving increased photosynthetic capacity through higher Jmax and Vcmax. Additionally, aquaponics plants increased photosynthesis rates (Asat) via higher stomatal conductance (gsw) of fewer stomata. Acclimation of key photosynthetic traits in aquaponics plants resulted in more edible biomass compared to soil grown plants, often with reduced investment in root production. Overall, aquaponics appears well suited to producing higher yields of certain crop species, while also reducing environmental impacts.

Edible mycelium bioengineered for enhanced nutritional value and sensory appeal using a modular synthetic biology toolkit

Filamentous fungi are critical in the transition to a more sustainable food system. While genetic modification of these organisms has promise for enhancing the nutritional value, sensory appeal, and scalability of fungal foods, genetic tools and demonstrated use cases for bioengineered food production by edible strains are lacking. Here, we develop a modular synthetic biology toolkit for Aspergillus oryzae, an edible fungus used in fermented foods, protein production, and meat alternatives. Our toolkit includes a CRISPR-Cas9 method for gene integration, neutral loci, and tunable promoters. We use these tools to elevate intracellular levels of the nutraceutical ergothioneine and the flavor-and color molecule heme in the edible biomass. The strain overproducing heme is red in color and is readily formulated into imitation meat patties with minimal processing. These findings highlight the promise of synthetic biology to enhance fungal foods and provide useful genetic tools for applications in food production and beyond.

Far-red Light and Nitrogen Concentration Elicit Crop-specific Responses in Baby Greens under Superelevated CO2 and Continuous Light

Baby greens are becoming increasingly popular in the consumer market because of their desired flavor and leaf size. The short life cycles and fast response times to environmental stimuli make baby greens ideal for testing environmental conditions for space crop production. Additionally, far-red (FR) light has been used for microgreen and baby green research to enhance stem elongation, leaf expansion, and biomass; however, how it interacts with nutrient solution nitrogen (N) concentrations remains unclear. During this ground-based study, we characterized how FR light and N concentrations influenced the growth and morphology of Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa var. chinensis cv. Tokyo Bekana) and kale (Brassica oleracea var. sabellica cv. Red Russian) baby greens under similar superelevated CO2 and low relative humidity to levels observed in spaceflight. Plants were subject to combinations of four sole-source light spectra and three N concentrations (75, 125, and 175 mg⋅L−1). At the same total photon flux density (PFD) of 200 μmol⋅m−2⋅s−1, we maintained the same blue and green PFDs at 25 μmol⋅m−2⋅s−1 each; the remaining 150 μmol⋅m−2⋅s−1 comprised four red (R) and FR PFD combinations (FR: 0, 25, 50, and 75 μmol⋅m−2⋅s−1). Increasing the FR PFD enhanced the typical shade-avoidance morphology of Chinese cabbage ‘Tokyo Bekana’ and kale ‘Red Russian’, exhibiting leaf length increases of 20% to 26% and 31% to 61%, respectively. Edible biomass did not increase with increasing FR PFDs for either species, regardless of the N concentration. Increasing the N concentration increased the Chinese cabbage ‘Tokyo Bekana’ fresh mass and dry mass by 32% to 59% and 37% to 74%, respectively, except under 25 μmol⋅m−2⋅s−1 of FR light, with which shoot fresh mass increased by 55% with an increasing N concentration from 75 to 125 mg⋅L−1; however, the shoot dry mass was unaffected. Increasing the N concentration did not affect kale ‘Red Russian’ growth under various FR PFDs. We conclude that partially substituting incremental FR light for R light elicits the shade-avoidance response, with little influence on the growth, of Chinese cabbage ‘Tokyo Bekana’ and kale ‘Red Russian’ baby greens under superelevated CO2 and continuous light, and that the former, but not the latter, crop can benefit from increased N fertilization.

Shading effects in agrivoltaic systems can make the difference in boosting food security in climate change

Photovoltaic (PV) systems play an important role in the sustainable energy transition, but their impact on food security is ambiguous due to the shift in land use from agriculture to energy production. Currently, agrivoltaic is emerging as an alternative sustainable energy source that optimises multifunctional land use by simultaneously supporting electricity generation and agricultural activities. While many studies have extolled the benefits of shade provided by agrivoltaic on crop water balance and evapotranspiration, plant ecological adaptation, such as Shade Avoidance Syndrome (SAS), and its implications for food security remain relatively unexplored. In this context, we have investigated the influence of a panel-generated shadow on chicory crop production in terms of plant biomass yield and its quality for human health under different water irrigation regimes. For each chicory plant, fresh weight and leaf dimensions were measured to estimate edible biomass, while leaf water content, chlorophylls a and b, carotenoids, metabolite profile and antioxidant capacity were evaluated to assess food quality. Our results show that the shading system has a remarkable capacity to increase edible chicory biomass production compared to full sunlight conditions of 69% and 23%, respectively for high water supply and low water supply, and greater capacity to promote pollination ecosystem services. The shade, provided by a well-designed agrivoltaic system, improves SAS and directly increase yield without altering food quality. Thus, agrivoltaic systems can combine renewable energy strategies with food security, while enhancing ecosystem services for human well-being.

How we can mine asteroids for space food

Abstract To deeply explore the solar system, it will be necessary to become less reliant on the resupply tether to Earth. An approach explored in this study is to convert hydrocarbons in asteroids to human edible food. After comparing the experimental pyrolysis breakdown products, which were able to be converted to biomass using a consortia, it was hypothesized that equivalent chemicals found on asteroids could also be converted to biomass with the same nutritional content as the pyrolyzed products. This study is a mathematical exercise that explores the potential food yield that could be produced from these methodologies. This study uses the abundance of aliphatic hydrocarbons in the Murchison meteorite (>35 ppm) as a baseline for the calculations, representing the minimum amount of organic matter that could theoretically be attributed to biomass production. Calculations for the total carbon in solvent-insoluble organic matter (IOM) represent the maximum amount of organic matter that could theoretically be attributed to food production. These two values will provide a range of realistic yields to determine how much food could theoretically be extractable from an asteroid. The results of this study found that if only the aliphatic hydrocarbons can be converted into biomass (minimum scenario) the resulting mass of edible biomass extractable from asteroid Bennu ranges from 5.070 × 107 g to 2.390 × 108 g. If the biomass extraction process, however, is more efficient, and all IOM is converted into edible biomass (maximum scenario), then the mass of edible biomass extractable from asteroid Bennu ranges from 1.391 × 109 g to 6.556 × 109 g. This would provide between 5.762 × 108 and 1.581 × 1010 calories that is enough to support between 600 and 17 000 astronaut life years. The asteroid mass needed to support one astronaut for one year is between 160 000 metric tons and 5000 metric tons. Based on these results, this approach of using carbon in asteroids to provide a distributed food source for humans appears promising, but there are substantial areas of future work.

Sculpting the future of meat: Biomaterial approaches and structural engineering for large‐scale cell‐based production

AbstractNovel foods are an increasing reality (and necessity) for our global food system and need to be protein‐rich for good nutrition. Cell‐based meats use the edible biomass of in vitro cultured animal cells harvested from the muscle tissue of live animals, removing the need to raise and slaughter animals. It is a viable alternative that is environmentally friendly, lowers resource consumption, and reduces health risks associated with traditional livestock farming. The cell‐based meat industry has boomed over the last 5 years with dozens of start‐ups being founded and millions of dollars in capital raised. While cell‐based meat faces technical, socio‐political, and regulatory challenges, it is a nascent technology with key technical challenges such as cell line stability, non‐animal‐derived culture media development, and bioprocessing for commercial‐scale uses. Here, we review the current field of cell‐based meat production at a lab scale and assess the feasibility and scalability of commercial production and the challenges that these production methods face. Moreover, we discuss the advancements in technologies for large‐scale manufacturing of cell‐based meat covering aspects including optimized culture media formulations, edible scaffold designs, and bioreactors for high‐density cell culture to reduce production costs.

Biofuels an alternative to traditional fossil fuels: A comprehensive review

Biofuels are fossil fuel alternatives produced from agricultural biomass or other organic matter; considered sustainable, eco-friendly, and bioeconomic biofuels have come up as a topic of discussion for over a decade. Their practical use depends on the production methods, low cost-technology implementation, and substrate used. This review gives an insight into different generations of biofuels with their applications and implications. First-generation biofuels are produced from edible biomass, but even in highly efficient processes, their yield isn't enough to cast them as a better alternative to conventional fuels. The second-generation biofuels are produced from non-edible biomass, where the substrate is eco-friendly and provides a sustainable use of solid waste, but the pretreatment is overpriced and sophisticated technology is needed to carry out the process. Third-generation biofuels are produced from substrates like seaweed or microalgae for which no specific area or separate cultivation process is required. Biofuels such as biohydrogen produced through microbial dark fermentation, bio-syngas generated via gasification, and biodiesel obtained through transesterification, have emerged as promising and environmentally friendly alternatives to conventional fuels. These biofuels have the potential to pave the way for a bioeconomic system of fuel production, offering economic viability and efficiency. However, extensive research conducted in the field of bioenergy, several challenges persist, hindering their commercialization prospects. To overcome the problems of first, second and third-generation biofuels, fourth-generation biofuels are under development using techniques like co-culturing, nanotechnology, and genetically modified organisms. Future generations of biofuels would set a system for a circular bioeconomic pathway for sustainable development in the fuel industry.

421 Inherent Livestock Feed Production: Abundance of Non-Edible Biomass in the Agricultural and Processing Sector in Germany

Abstract Livestock have a central role in food production as extractors and concentrators of nutrients from non-edible biomass [neB] producing high value foodstuff for human nutrition [1]. Agricultural production aims for maximizing edible biomass [eB] production whereby, neB production is inevitably coupled to it. The goal of this study was to determine how much neB and eB is produced annually in agricultural and processing sector in Germany. Literature research has been conducted (26 peer-reviewed publications, 15 books, 26 reports, 15 other grey literature) to identify the amount of eB and neB along the agricultural production chain in Germany. Therefore, conversion efficiencies of biomass from field to fork have been calculated on a dry matter basis by considering main- to by-product ratios on the field as well as processing efficiencies for food and renewable energy industry branches (e.g., milling, ethanol production, brewing, oil extraction, starch extraction, sugar extraction). Based upon these calculations, the human edible fraction (HeF) [2] was used together with mean agricultural production data (2012-17) in Germany to determine the abundance of eB and neB for two scenarios: low vs. high edibility of biomass. Since HeF factors denote theoretical margins of edibility of biomass, additional scenarios were calculated assuming current processing efficiencies as well as silage maize being completely inedible. Furthermore, changes in biomass production in scenarios of complete substitution of land used for silage maize production and cultivation of human edible foods have been analysed.115 to 134 million tons of neB and 38 to 57 million tons of eB were produced annually during the observation period. This equals 2-3.5 kg of neB per kg of eB. When silage maize was considered as neB, numbers increased to 2.5 to -4.8 kg of neB per kg of eB. When current processing efficiencies in Germany and grain usage were used for calculations instead of the two HeF scenarios, and silage maize was considered not edible, then 1kg of eB produced 4kg of neB. When the used area for silage maize cultivation would in future be substituted for food crop cultivation then 1kg of eB yielded 2.8kg of neB. The scenarios suggest that the amount of eB per acre of agricultural land changes dramatically once the whole agricultural system including grassland, green plants for feed production, straw, and by-products is adapted to future scenarios. The future challenge will be to improve current processing efficiencies of the food and renewable energy industry to approach the upper limits of edibility given by the HeF fractions. In any case, feed production is inherent.[1] Bradford et al. (1999) Ames, IA (Task force report / Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, 135) ISBN 1-887383-17-4[2] Ertl et al. (2015) In: Agricultural Systems 137, S. 119–125. DOI: 10.1016/j.agsy.2015.04.004.

Application timing and duration of LED and HPS supplements differentially influence yield, nutrient bioaccumulation, and light use efficiency of greenhouse basil across seasons.

Three primary factors that impact plant growth and development are light quantity, quality, and duration. Commercial growers can manipulate these parameters using light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to optimize biomass yield and plant quality. There is significant potential to synergize supplemental lighting (SL) parameters with seasonal variation of ambient sunlight to optimize crop light use efficiency (LUE), which could increase biomass while reducing SL electricity costs. To determine the best lighting characteristics and durations for different crops, particularly for enhancing the yield and nutritional quality of high-value specialty crops produced in greenhouses during the winter, a thorough efficacy comparison of progressive incremental daily light integrals (DLIs) using LED and high-pressure sodium (HPS) sources is required. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of differential application timing and DLIs of supplemental blue (B)/red (R) narrowband wavelengths from LED lighting systems and HPS lamps on greenhouse hydroponic basil (Ocimum basilicum var. 'Genovese') production. We assessed edible biomass, nutrient bioaccumulation, and LUE. Nine light treatments included: one non-supplemented natural light (NL) control, two end-of-day (EOD) HPS treatments applied for 6h and 12h, five EOD 20B/80R LED treatments applied for 3h, 6h, 9h, 12h, 18h, and one continuous LED treatment (24h). Each SL treatment provided 100 µmol·m-2·s-1. The DLI of the NL control averaged 9.9mol·m-2·d-1 during the growth period (ranging from 4 to 20mol·m-2·d-1). SL treatments and growing seasons significantly impacted biomass and nutrient bioaccumulation; some SL treatments had lower yields than the non-supplemented NL control. January growing season produced the lowest fresh mass (FM) and dry mass (DM) values compared to November, which had the highest. Mineral analyses revealed that both growing seasons and lighting types impacted macro and micronutrient accumulation. Additionally, the efficiency of each treatment in converting electrical energy into biomass varied greatly. EOD supplements using LED and HPS lighting systems both have merits for efficiently optimizing yield and nutrient accumulation in basil; however, biomass and nutrient tissue concentrations highly depend on seasonal variation in ambient sunlight in conjunction with a supplement's spectral quality, DLI, and application schedule.

Available Forage and the Conditions for Avoiding Predation of the Siberian Roe Deer (Capreolus pygargus) in the Lesser Xing’an Mountains

Our study focused on quantifying available forage and the conditions for avoiding predation provided within the home ranges of Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus). We conducted transect surveys in both winter and summer–autumn home ranges of the Siberian roe deer in the Tieli Forestry Bureau of the Lesser Xing’an Mountains. Our results revealed significant differences: (1) In terms of the quantity and quality of available forage, the summer–autumn home range had substantially more available forage than the winter home range, with meadows and cornfields showing the highest edible biomass in each, respectively. In terms of forage quality, there were differences in hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin content between the two ranges. (2) In terms of the conditions for avoiding predation, the winter home range had lower vegetation coverage and greater visibility, making escape strategies more viable. In contrast, the summer–autumn home range had denser vegetation and limited visibility, making hiding strategies more viable. Our study offers comprehensive insights into the available forage and the conditions for avoiding predation, which is crucial for wildlife conservation strategies and habitat management in the region, as it directly informs strategies that address the seasonal forage requirements and predation avoidance of these deer, ultimately enhancing their prospects for survival in the area.

Circular waste management: Superworms as a sustainable solution for biodegradable plastic degradation and resource recovery

Bioplastics offer a promising solution to plastic pollution, however, their production frequently relies on edible biomass, and their degradation rates remain inadequate. This study investigates the potential of superworms (Zophobas atratus larvae) for polybutylene succinate (PBS) waste management, aiming to achieve both resource recovery and biodegradation. Superworms exclusively fed on PBS for a month exhibited the same survival rate as those on a standard bran diet. PBS digestion yielded a 5.13% weight gain and a 23.23% increase in protein composition in superworms. Additionally, carbon isotope analyses substantiated the conversion of PBS into superworm components. Gut microbes capable of PBS biodegradation became progressively prominent, further augmenting the degradation rate of PBS under composting conditions (ISO 14855-1). Gut-free superworms fed with PBS exhibited antioxidant activities comparable to those of blueberries, renowned for their high antioxidant activity. Based on these findings, this study introduces a sustainable circular solution encompassing recycling PBS waste to generate insect biomass, employing insect gut and frass for PBS degradation and fertilizer, and harnessing insect residue as a food source. In essence, the significance of this research extends to socio-economic and environmental spheres, impacting waste management, resource efficiency, circular economy promotion, environmental preservation, industrial advancement, and global sustainability objectives. The study's outcomes possess the potential to reshape society’s approach to plastic waste, facilitating a shift toward more sustainable paradigms.

Potential use of saline resources for biofuel production using halophytes and marine algae: prospects and pitfalls.

There exists a global challenge of feeding the growing human population of the world and supplying its energy needs without exhausting global resources. This challenge includes the competition for biomass between food and fuel production. The aim of this paper is to review to what extent the biomass of plants growing under hostile conditions and on marginal lands could ease that competition. Biomass from salt-tolerant algae and halophytes has shown potential for bioenergy production on salt-affected soils. Halophytes and algae could provide a bio-based source for lignoceelusic biomass and fatty acids or an alternative for edible biomass currently produced using fresh water and agricultural lands. The present paper provides an overview of the opportunities and challenges in the development of alternative fuels from halophytes and algae. Halophytes grown on marginal and degraded lands using saline water offer an additional material for commercial-scale biofuel production, especially bioethanol. At the same time, suitable strains of microalgae cultured under saline conditions can be a particularly good source of biodiesel, although the efficiency of their mass-scale biomass production is still a concern in relation to environmental protection. This review summaries the pitfalls and precautions for producing biomass in a way that limits environmental hazards and harms for coastal ecosystems. Some new algal and halophytic species with great potential as sources of bioenergy are highlighted.

Circular bio‐economy in aquaculture

Circular bio‐economy in aquaculture

Towards microalga-based superfoods: heterologous expression of zeolin in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

Microalgae are unicellular photosynthetic organisms that can be grown in artificial systems to capture CO2, release oxygen, use nitrogen- and phosphorus-rich wastes, and produce biomass and bioproducts of interest including edible biomass for space exploration. In the present study, we report a metabolic engineering strategy for the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii to produce high-value proteins for nutritional purposes. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is a species approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for human consumption, and its consumption has been reported to improve gastrointestinal health in both murine models and humans. By utilizing the biotechnological tools available for this green alga, we introduced a synthetic gene encoding a chimeric protein, zeolin, obtained by merging the γ-zein and phaseolin proteins, in the algal genome. Zein and phaseolin are major seed storage proteins of maize (Zea mays) and bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) that accumulate in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and storage vacuoles, respectively. Seed storage proteins have unbalanced amino acid content, and for this reason, need to be complemented with each other in the diet. The chimeric recombinant zeolin protein represents an amino acid storage strategy with a balanced amino acid profile. Zeolin protein was thus efficiently expressed in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii; thus, we obtained strains that accumulate this recombinant protein in the endoplasmic reticulum, reaching a concentration up to 5.5 fg cell-1, or secrete it in the growth medium, with a titer value up to 82 µg/L, enabling the production of microalga-based super-food.

Kobresia pygmaea meadows as disclimax communities in the same geographic and climatic environments in Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, China

Abstract Kobresia meadows are the main pastures for animal husbandry on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, and may represent alternative steady states associated with different grazing intensities. The ability of other plant communities to succeed these meadows remains unclear. In this study, the historical data of plant communities were analyzed in terms of the soil profile, and the present characteristics were identified by investigating their plant communities. Four types of steady states were identified, corresponding to grazing intensities of >11, 8–11, 5.5–8 and <5.5 sheep/ha. Drought alpine swamp meadows and shrub meadows could succeed to K. pygmaea meadows and K. humilis meadows under overgrazing, and their total biomass and edible biomass (estimated by Gramineae and Cyperaceae) decreased with increasing grazing intensity. The regime shift of the states occurred at a grazing intensity of 8–11 sheep/ha. This value thus represented the threshold of significant change in the production and ecological service function in the Kobresia meadow succession process. In general, increasing grazing intensities can adversely affect the service ability of meadows for livestock production and ecosystem stabilization. Our results revealed the potential degraded succession process of the alpine Kobresia meadow and the succession direction in the restoration process of degraded meadows. Additionally, this study provided a theoretical basis for evaluating the fitness between the livestock bearing capacity and carrying capacity in steady states and academic reference for policy setting pertaining to the utilization of Kobresia meadows in a sustainable development framework.

Potential Protein Production from Lignocellulosic Materials Using Edible Mushroom Forming Fungi.

There is a need for new protein sources to feed the world in a sustainable way. Converting non-food-grade "woody" side streams into food containing proteins will contribute to this mission. Mushroom forming fungi are unique in their capability to convert lignocellulosic substances into edible biomass containing protein. Especially if substrate mycelium can be used instead of mushrooms, this technology could be a serious contribution to addressing the protein challenge. In this Perspective, we discuss challenges toward production, purification, and market introduction of mushroom mycelium based foods.

Feed‐food competition in global aquaculture: Current trends and prospects

AbstractFeed‐food competition is the allocation of resources that can be used to feed humans to animal feed instead, a current but unsustainable practise not well documented for aquaculture. Here, we analysed feed‐food competition in aquaculture using two measures; natural trophic levels (TLs) and species‐specific human‐edible protein conversion ratios (HePCRs). The HePCR equals the ratio of human edible protein in feed (input) to the human edible protein in animal produce (output). To provide prospects on aquaculture's potential to convert human inedible by‐products into edible biomass, data on aquaculture production were collected and categorized based on natural TLs. HePCRs were computed for four aquaculture species produced in intensive aquaculture systems: Atlantic salmon, common carp, Nile tilapia and whiteleg shrimp. Under current feed use, we estimated that the carp, tilapia and shrimp considered were net contributors of protein by requiring ~0.6 kg of human edible protein to produce 1 kg of protein in the fillet/meat. Considering soya bean meal and fishmeal as food‐competing ingredients increased the HePCR to ~2 and turned all of the case‐study species into net consumers of protein. To prevent this increase, the use of high‐quality food‐competing ingredients such as fishmeal, or soya bean products should be minimized in aquaculture feed. In the future, the role of aquaculture in circular food systems will most likely consist of a balanced mix of species at different TLs and from different aquaculture systems, depending on the by‐products available.

Trends in Lake Erie phytoplankton biomass and community structure during a 20-year period of rapid environmental change

Since the 1990s, Lake Erie has experienced resurgent eutrophication due in part to climate change-driven increases in precipitation, which have combined with increasingly intensive agricultural practices in the region to produce excessive nutrient runoff into the lake. Harmful blooms of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa (“Microcystis”) in Lake Erie’s western and central basins (WB and CB, respectively) have been a highly visible consequence of this eutrophication, however few studies have characterized intra- or interannual trends in less abundant, though likely more edible, phytoplankton taxa over the last 25 years. Here, we used the 20-year Lake Erie Plankton Abundance Study (LEPAS) dataset to quantify intra- and interannual trends in the dynamics of six major phytoplankton groups in the WB and CB during 1995–2015. Cyanobacteria biomass in the WB increased >1000-fold during this period, while biomass of all other major taxa groups increased between 10- and 100-fold. Early summer (June–July) and spring (May) communities saw more modest directional change in the biomass of both edible and less-edible taxa as well as community structure. Around 2008, the CB also began to experience Microcystis blooms concurrent with those in the WB, with similar, though less dramatic consequences for phytoplankton community structure and edible biomass. The biomass of several phytoplankton groups exhibited intra-annual oscillations with a ∼5-year period. The mechanisms underlying changes in the phytoplankton community structure and their consequences for higher trophic levels are not well understood, however increases in edible phytoplankton may be sustaining long-term upward trends in many zooplankton taxa.