Edge Illumination Research Articles

Virtual edge illumination and one dimensional beam tracking for absorption, refraction, and scattering retrieval

We propose two different approaches to retrieve x-ray absorption, refraction, and scattering signals using a one dimensional scan and a high resolution detector. The first method can be easily implemented in existing procedures developed for edge illumination to retrieve absorption and refraction signals, giving comparable image quality while reducing exposure time and delivered dose. The second method tracks the variations of the beam intensity profile on the detector through a multi-Gaussian interpolation, allowing the additional retrieval of the scattering signal.

Theory and preliminary experimental verification of quantitative edge illumination x-ray phase contrast tomography

X-ray phase contrast imaging (XPCi) methods are sensitive to phase in addition to attenuation effects and, therefore, can achieve improved image contrast for weakly attenuating materials, such as often encountered in biomedical applications. Several XPCi methods exist, most of which have already been implemented in computed tomographic (CT) modality, thus allowing volumetric imaging. The Edge Illumination (EI) XPCi method had, until now, not been implemented as a CT modality. This article provides indications that quantitative 3D maps of an object's phase and attenuation can be reconstructed from EI XPCi measurements. Moreover, a theory for the reconstruction of combined phase and attenuation maps is presented. Both reconstruction strategies find applications in tissue characterisation and the identification of faint, weakly attenuating details. Experimental results for wires of known materials and for a biological object validate the theory and confirm the superiority of the phase over conventional, attenuation-based image contrast.

Sensitivity of edge illumination X-ray phase-contrast imaging

Recently, we developed a theoretical model that can predict the signal-to-noise ratio for edge-like features in phase-contrast images. This model was then applied for the estimation of the sensitivity of three different X-ray phase-contrast techniques: propagation-based imaging, analyser-based imaging and grating interferometry. We show here how the same formalism can be used also in the case of the edge illumination (EI) technique, providing results that are consistent with those of a recently developed method for the estimation of noise in the retrieved refraction image. The new model is then applied to calculate, in the case of a given synchrotron radiation set-up, the optimum positions of the pre-sample aperture and detector edge to maximize the sensitivity. Finally, an example of the extremely high angular resolution achievable with the EI technique is presented.

Medicine, material science and security: the versatility of the coded-aperture approach

The principal limitation to the widespread deployment of X-ray phase imaging in a variety of applications is probably versatility. A versatile X-ray phase imaging system must be able to work with polychromatic and non-microfocus sources (for example, those currently used in medical and industrial applications), have physical dimensions sufficiently large to accommodate samples of interest, be insensitive to environmental disturbances (such as vibrations and temperature variations), require only simple system set-up and maintenance, and be able to perform quantitative imaging. The coded-aperture technique, based upon the edge illumination principle, satisfies each of these criteria. To date, we have applied the technique to mammography, materials science, small-animal imaging, non-destructive testing and security. In this paper, we outline the theory of coded-aperture phase imaging and show an example of how the technique may be applied to imaging samples with a practically important scale.

A LABORATORY-BASED X-RAY PHASE CONTRAST IMAGING SCANNER WITH APPLICATIONS IN BIOMEDICAL AND NON-MEDICAL DISCIPLINES

X-ray phase contrast imaging (XPCi) provides a much higher visibility of low-absorbing details than conventional, attenuation-based radiography. This is due to the fact that image contrast is determined by the unit decrement of the real part of the complex refractive index of an object rather than by its imaginary part (the absorption coefficient), which can be up to 1000 times larger for energies in the X-ray regime. This finds applications in many areas, including medicine, biology, material testing, and homeland security. Until lately, XPCi has been restricted to synchrotron facilities due to its demanding coherence requirements on the radiation source. However, edge illumination XPCi, first developed by one of the authors at the ELETTRA Synchrotron in Italy, substantially relaxes these requirements and therefore provides options to overcome this problem. Our group has built a prototype scanner that adapts the edge-illumination concept to standard laboratory conditions and extends it to large fields of view. This is based on X-ray sources and detectors available off the shelf, and its use has led to impressive results in mammography, cartilage imaging, testing of composite materials and security inspection. This article presents the method and the scanner prototype, and reviews its applications in selected biomedical and non-medical disciplines.

Sensitivity of laboratory based implementations of edge illumination X-ray phase-contrast imaging

We present a theoretical and experimental analysis of the angular sensitivity of edge illumination X-ray phase-contrast imaging in its implementation with conventional X-ray sources (sometimes referred to as the “coded-aperture” method). We study how the polychromaticity and finite source dimensions encountered in laboratory-based setups affect the detected signal. We also show that the sensitivity is independent of the period of the masks. Experimental images are presented and analyzed, proving that, despite the simple setup, high angular resolutions of a few hundred nanoradians can be obtained.

850-nm Edge-Illuminated Si Photodiodes Fabricated With CMOS-MEMS Technology

This letter examines edge-illuminated silicon photodiodes (PDs) fabricated using standard CMOS technology operated at 850-nm wavelength. A micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) process was employed to expose the illuminated surface and achieve edge illumination. A single-mode lensed fiber is employed to inject light into the depletion region of the PD directly, limiting and reducing the diffusive carriers within the bulk Si substrate. Through employing this procedure, this letter achieved a superior performance in the 3-dB bandwidth compared with that yielded by vertically illuminated PDs. The 5.4 GHz high bandwidth was obtained using an edge-illuminated PD with a 20 μm× 15.6 μm active region.

Thermal Analysis of Edge Illumination Type LED Backlight with Heat Pipe

This paper reports on thermal characterization of edge illumination type LED backlight integrated with heat pipes. Heat pipe is integrated with the panel by phase change flattening and expanding process. Thermal capabilities, including the steady-state working temperature and the temperature uniformity along the panels with heat pipes and without heat pipes are compared and analyzed. Results show that the steady-state working temperature on the panel with heat pipes is 1~6°C lower than that on the panel without heat pipes under power range of 15W to 51W of the LED arrays. And the temperature uniformity along the panel with heat pipes is controlled within 2.0°C.

Method for automatization of the alignment of a laboratory based x-ray phase contrast edge illumination system.

Here we present a general alignment algorithm for an edge illumination x-ray phase contrast imaging system, which is used with the laboratory systems developed at UCL. It has the flexibility to be used with all current mask designs, and could also be applied to future synchrotron based systems. The algorithm has proved to be robust experimentally, and can be used for the automatization of future commercial systems through automatic alignment and alignment correction.

Improved sensitivity at synchrotrons using edge illumination X-ray phase-contrast imaging

The application of the X-ray phase-contrast `edge illumination' principle to the highly coherent beams available at synchrotron radiation facilities is presented here. We show that, in this configuration, the technique allows achieving unprecedented angular sensitivity, of the order of few nanoradians. The results are obtained at beamlines of two different synchrotron radiation facilities, using various experimental conditions. In particular, different detectors and X-ray energies (12 keV and 85 keV) were employed, proving the flexibility of the method and the broad range of conditions over which it can be applied. Furthermore, the quantitative separation of absorption and refraction information, and the application of the edge illumination principle in combination with computed tomography, are also demonstrated. Thanks to its extremely high phase sensitivity and its flexible applicability, this technique will both improve the image quality achievable with X-ray phase-contrast imaging and allow tackling areas of application which remain unexplored until now.

Applications of a non-interferometric x-ray phase contrast imaging method with both synchrotron and conventional sources

We have developed a totally incoherent, non-interferometric x-ray phase contrast imaging (XPCI) method. This is based on the edge illumination (EI) concept developed at the ELETTRA synchrotron in Italy in the late `90s. The method was subsequently adapted to the divergent beam generated by a conventional source, by replicating it for every detector line through suitable masks. The method was modelled both with the simplified ray-tracing and with the more rigorous wave-optics approach, and in both cases excellent agreement with the experimental results was found. The wave-optics model enabled assessing the methods' coherence requirements, showing that they are at least an order of magnitude more relaxed than in other methods, without this having negative consequences on the phase sensitivity. Our masks have large pitches (up to 50 times larger than in grating interferometry, for example), which allows for manufacturing through standard lithography, scalability, cost-effectiveness and easiness to align. When applied to a polychromatic and divergent beam generated by a conventional source, the method enables the detection of strong phase effects also with uncollimated, unapertured sources with focal spots of up to 100 μm, compatible with the state-of-the-art in mammography. When used at synchrotrons, it enables a contrast increase of orders of magnitude over other methods. Robust phase retrieval was proven for both coherent and incoherent sources, and additional advantages are compatibility with high x-ray energies and easy implementation of phase sensitivity in two directions simultaneously. This paper briefly summarizes these achievements and reviews some of the key results.

X-Ray Phase-Contrast Imaging with Nanoradian Angular Resolution

We present a new quantitative x-ray phase-contrast imaging method based on the edge illumination principle, which allows achieving unprecedented nanoradian sensitivity. The extremely high angular resolution is demonstrated theoretically and through experimental images obtained at two different synchrotron radiation facilities. The results, achieved at both very high and very low x-ray energies, show that this highly sensitive technique can be efficiently exploited over a very broad range of experimental conditions. This method can open the way to new, previously inaccessible scientific applications in various fields including biology, medicine and materials science.

A quantitative, non-interferometric X-ray phase contrast imaging technique

We present a quantitative, non-interferometric, X-ray differential phase contrast imaging technique based on the edge illumination principle. We derive a novel phase retrieval algorithm which requires only two images to be acquired and verify the technique experimentally using synchrotron radiation. The technique is useful for planar imaging but is expected to be important for quantitative phase tomography also. The properties and limitations of the technique are studied in detail.

Phase and absorption retrieval using incoherent X-ray sources

X-ray phase contrast imaging has overcome the limitations of X-ray absorption imaging in many fields. Particular effort has been directed towards developing phase retrieval methods: These reveal quantitative information about a sample, which is a requirement for performing X-ray phase tomography, allows material identification and better distinction between tissue types, etc. Phase retrieval seems impossible with conventional X-ray sources due to their low spatial coherence. In the only previous example where conventional sources have been used, collimators were employed to produce spatially coherent secondary sources. We present a truly incoherent phase retrieval method, which removes the spatial coherence constraints and employs a conventional source without aperturing, collimation, or filtering. This is possible because our technique, based on the pixel edge illumination principle, is neither interferometric nor crystal based. Beams created by an X-ray mask to image the sample are smeared due to the incoherence of the source, yet we show that their displacements can still be measured accurately, obtaining strong phase contrast. Quantitative information is extracted from only two images rather than a sequence as required by several coherent methods. Our technique makes quantitative phase imaging and phase tomography possible in applications where exposure time and radiation dose are critical. The technique employs masks which are currently commercially available with linear dimensions in the tens of centimeters thus allowing for a large field of view. The technique works at high photon energy and thus promises to deliver much safer quantitative phase imaging and phase tomography in the future.

Amplification of the phase contrast signal at very high x-ray energies

X-ray phase contrast imaging is increasingly being used in several fields, both at synchrotron facilities and with laboratory sources, due to its increased sensitivity compared to conventional x-ray methods. One important problem is the development of methods to make it suitable for use at very high x-ray energies, needed in many applications. We show how the edge illumination concept, which stands at the basis of the coded-aperture method, allows achieving hyperintense phase signals at energies close to 100 keV, by showing images of both weak phase objects and highly absorbing fossils with a high iron content.

Terahertz Radiation Driven Chiral Edge Currents in Graphene

We observe photocurrents induced in single-layer graphene samples by illumination of the graphene edges with circularly polarized terahertz radiation at normal incidence. The photocurrent flows along the sample edges and forms a vortex. Its winding direction reverses by switching the light helicity from left to right handed. We demonstrate that the photocurrent stems from the sample edges, which reduce the spatial symmetry and result in an asymmetric scattering of carriers driven by the radiation electric field. The developed theory based on Boltzmann's kinetic equation is in a good agreement with the experiment. We show that the edge photocurrents can be applied for determination of the conductivity type and the momentum scattering time of the charge carriers in the graphene edge vicinity.

Effects of signal diffusion on x-ray phase contrast images

We discuss the problem of signal diffusion among neighbouring pixels in x-ray phase contrast imaging (XPCi) specifically for coded-aperture (CA) XPCi, but many of the discussed observations are directly transferable to other XPCi modalities. CA XPCi exploits the principle of pixel edge illumination by means of two CA masks. The first mask, placed in contact with the detector, creates insensitive regions between adjacent pixels; the second one, placed immediately before the sample, creates individual beams impinging on the boundaries between sensitive and insensitive regions on the detector, as created by the detector mask. In this way, edge illumination is achieved for all pixels of an area detector illuminated by a divergent and polychromatic beam generated by a conventional source. As the detector mask redefines the resolution properties of the detector, sample dithering can be used to effectively increase the system spatial resolution, without having to apply any post-processing procedure (e.g., deconvolution). This however creates artifacts in the form of secondary fringes (which have nothing to do with phase-related secondary fringes) if there is signal diffusion between adjacent pixels. In non-dithered images, signal diffusion between adjacent pixels causes a reduction in image contrast. This effect is investigated both theoretically and experimentally, and its direct implications on image quality are discussed. The interplay with the sample positioning with respect to the detector pixel matrix, which also has an effect on the obtained image contrast, is also discussed.

Performance of Hemielliptic Dielectric Lens Antennas With Optimal Edge Illumination

The role of edge illumination in the performance of compact-size dielectric lens antennas (DLAs) is studied in accurate manner using a highly efficient algorithm based on the combination of the Muller boundary integral equations and the method of analytical regularization. The analysis accounts for the finite size of the lens and directive nature of the primary feed placed close to the center of the lens base. The problem is solved in a two-dimensional formulation for both E- and H-polarizations. It is found that away from internal resonances that spoil the radiation characteristics of DLAs made of dense materials, the edge illumination has primary importance. The proper choice of this parameter helps maximize DLA directivity, and its optimal value depends on the lens material and feed polarization. Index Terms: Beam collimation, dielectric lens antenna, directivity improvement, edge illumination, edge taper, hemielliptic lens.

Numerical Analysis of Quasioptical Multireflector Antennas in 2-D With the Method of Discrete Singularities: E-Wave Case

Numerical method for modeling the E-polarized wave scattering by electrically large quasioptical two-dimensional (2-D) reflectors is presented. Reflectors are assumed zero-thickness and perfectly electrically conducting. Efficient numerical solution is obtained from the coupled singular integral equations discretized using new quadrature formulas of interpolation type. It has controlled accuracy and deals with small-size matrices. To simulate a small-horn feeding, the incident field is taken as a beam generated by a complex-source-point (CSP) current. Presented numerical results validate empirical rule of -10 dB edge illumination needed to provide the best electromagnetic performance of reflector

Numerical analysis and synthesis of 2D quasi-optical reflectors and beam waveguides based on an integral-equation approach with Nystrom's discretization

Considered is the beam wave guidance and scattering by 2D quasi-optical reflectors modeling the components of beam waveguides. The incident field is taken as the complex-source-point field to simulate a finite-width beam generated by a small-aperture source. A numerical solution is obtained from the coupled singular integral equations (SIEs) for the surface currents on reflectors, discretized by using the recently introduced Nystrom-type quadrature formulas. This analysis is applied to study what effect the edge illumination has on the performance of a chain of confocal elliptic reflectors. We also develop a semianalytical approach for shaped reflector synthesis after a prescribed near-field pattern. Here a new point is the use of auxiliary SIEs of the same type as in the scattering analysis problem, however, for the gradient of the objective function. Sample results are presented for the synthesis of a reflector-type beam splitter.