Eddy Current Measurement System Research Articles

Unsupervised Machine Learning for Missing Clamp Detection from an In-Service Train Using Differential Eddy Current Sensor

The rail fastening system plays a crucial role in railway tracks as it ensures operational safety by fixing the rail on to the sleeper. Early detection of rail fastener system defects is crucial to ensure track safety and to enable maintenance optimization. Fastener inspections are normally conducted either manually by trained maintenance personnel or by using automated 2-D visual inspection methods. Such methods have drawbacks when visibility is limited, and they are also found to be expensive in terms of system maintenance cost and track possession time. In a previous study, the authors proposed a train-based differential eddy current sensor system based on the principle of electromagnetic induction for fastener inspection that could overcome the challenges mentioned above. The detection in the previous study was carried out with the aid of a supervised machine learning algorithm. This study reports the finding of a case study, along a heavy haul line in the north of Sweden, using the same eddy current sensor system mounted on an in-service freight train. In this study, unsupervised machine learning models for detecting and analyzing missing clamps in a fastener system were developed. The differential eddy current measurement system was set to use a driving field frequency of 27 kHz. An anomaly detection model combining isolation forest (IF) and connectivity-based outlier factor (COF) was implemented to detect anomalies from fastener inspection measurements. To group the anomalies into meaningful clusters and to detect missing clamps within the fastening system, an unsupervised clustering based on the DBSCAN algorithm was also implemented. The models were verified by measuring a section of the track for which the track conditions were known. The proposed anomaly detection model had a detection accuracy of 96.79% and also exhibited a high score of sensitivity and specificity. The DBSCAN model was successful in clustering missing clamps, both one and two missing clamps, from a fastening system separately.

Analysis of the 3D draping behavior of carbon fiber non-crimp fabrics with eddy current technique

Abstract Assessing and controlling the complex deformation behavior of textile reinforcements fabrics remains one of the major challenges in the production of fiber-reinforced plastics. In this paper, the draping of +45°/-45° biaxial non-crimp fabrics to a hemispherical shape is investigated with an eddy current imaging technique. After an automated draping process, the textiles are scanned with a robot-guided eddy current measurement system. From the resulting conductivity maps of the samples, the local yarn directions are extracted by image analysis and the paths of individual yarns are reconstructed for both the upper and the lower layer. Experiments are carried out for different forming speeds, blank holder forces and different non-crimp fabric parameters (stitch length, stitch type, stitch tension and yarn count). The influences of these parameters are compared and discussed, with the conclusion that blank holder forces have by far the most significant influence on the draping result. Sample experimental results are compared to results from an FEM draping simulation.

Assembly force and taper angle difference influence the relative motion at the stem–neck interface of bi-modular hip prostheses

Bi-modular hip arthroplasty prostheses allow adaptation to the individual patient anatomy and the combination of different materials but introduce an additional interface, which was related lately to current clinical issues. Relative motion at the additional taper interface might increase the overall risk of fretting, corrosion, metallic debris and early failure. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the assembly force influences the relative motion and seating behaviour at the stem-neck interface of a bi-modular hip prosthesis (Metha(®); Aesculap AG, Tuttlingen, Germany) and whether this relation is influenced by the taper angle difference between male and female taper angles. Neck adapters made of titanium (Ti6Al4V) and CoCr (CoCr29Mo) were assembled with a titanium stem using varying assembly forces and mechanically loaded. A contactless eddy current measurement system was used to record the relative motion between prosthesis stem and neck adapter. Higher relative motion was observed for Ti neck adapters compared to the CoCr ones (p < 0.001). Higher assembly forces caused increased seating distances (p < 0.001) and led to significantly reduced relative motion (p = 0.019). Independent of neck material type, prostheses with larger taper angle difference between male and female taper angles exhibited decreased relative motion (p < 0.001). Surgeons should carefully use assembly forces above 4 kN to decrease the amount of relative motion within the taper interface. Maximum assembly forces, however, should be limited to prevent periprosthetic fractures. Manufacturers should optimize taper angle differences to increase the resistance against relative motion.

Analysis of Eddy-Current Measurement System for Residual Stress Assessment in Stainless Steel Grade 304

The objective of this paper is an analysis of statistical discreteness and measurement capability of an eddy-current measurement system for residual stress assessment in stainless steel Grade 304 (SS304). Cylindrical specimens with 50 mm in diameter and 12 mm thickness were prepared to generate residual stress by Resistance Spot Welding at which the welding currents were set at 12, 14, and 16 kA. The eddy-current measurement system was including a probe with frequency range of 0.1 to 3 MHz and an eddy current flaw detector. They were performed by contacting the probe on the specimen. The measurements were performed particularly in the vicinity of heat affected zone (HAZ). In order to determine the results of the residual stress measurement, the calibration curves between static tensile stress and eddy current impedance at various frequencies were accomplished. The Measurement System Analysis (MSA) was utilized to evaluate the changed eddy-current probe impedance from residual stress. The results showed that using eddy current technique at 1 MHz for residual stress measurement was the most efficient. It can be achieved the Gauge Repeatability &amp; Reproducibility %GR&amp;R at 16.61479 and Number of Distinct Categories (NDC) at 8. As applied on actual butt welded joint, it could yield the uncertainty of ± 58 MPa at 95 % (UISO).

In-situ measurement of Cu film thickness during the CMP process by using eddy current method alone

An eddy current measurement system for Cu thickness in CMP was established.The nano-scale sensitivity under large lift-off distance was reached by optimizing.The differential method for signal processing avoids the drift of system. A fast, accurate and in situ method for determination of interconnect Cu film thickness in the range from 200 to 500nm is a crucial requirement in the stress free polishing (SFP) process which is a novel semiconductor manufacture technique. This paper presents an in situ Cu film thickness measurement system with an optimized eddy current transducer for this purpose. The fabricated transducer has been integrated into a chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) platform for the purpose of testing. Measurement tests for both the Cu film with uniform thickness and the Cu film with interconnects are conducted. The CMP experiment results show that the resolution of the transducer can achieve a few nanometers under 3mm lift-off distance. With the increase in the density of the underlying Cu interconnects, the measured thickness value of the overlaid Cu film is also increased. By using an on-line differential signal processing method, the drift of the measurement system is removed. The repeatability and instability errors are less than 1.6%. The system can meet the technical requirements for advanced CMP processes.

Coil impedance calculation of an eddy current sensor by the finite element method

An eddy current sensor utilizes the variation of coil impedance to perform the measurement of physical parameters, and the coil impedance is an important parameter for investigating the properties of an eddy current sensor. Therefore, the study of approaches to calculation of coil impedance is very important. In this paper, an integral expression for coil impedance with a magnetic substance is given directly. For the convenience of calculation of the coil impedance, this integral expression is further expanded in series form and the coil impedance is computed using Mathematica. Then, two different finite element models of the eddy current measurement system are built on the basis of the finite element modeling theory. The infinite boundary of model 1 is truncated. On the contrary, the infinite boundary of model 2 is simulated completely by an infinite element. The coil impedance and the magnetic distribution are obtained by the finite element method, respectively. The comparison shows that the result obtained by the finite element method is in good agreement with that of the theoretical calculation approach, which indicates the correctness and reasonability of modeling of the eddy current measurement system and calculation of the coil impedance by the finite element method.

Two approaches to coil impedance calculation of eddy current sensor

Eddy current (EC) sensor detects measurand by the change of coil impedance, which is introduced by coupling the magnetic energy between coil and measurement target. Therefore, it is of great significance for both the forward and inverse eddy current problems to study on the approaches to coil impedance calculation. In the current paper, two approaches are presented to calculate coil impedance of EC sensor. First, the theoretical calculation model of coil impedance is simplified as an air-cored cylindrical coil, over an infinite measurement target. And the integral expression of coil impedance is derived according to the sensor operation principle and electromagnetic field theory. Then, the integral expression is expanded as series form in cylindrical coordinate system in order to compute the coil impedance easily, and computed using MathematicaTM. Next, based on the finite element modeling theory, two different finite element models of eddy current measurement system are built. The infinite boundary in mode1 is truncated, while in model 2, it is simulated completely by an infinite element. Furthermore, the appropriate location where the air domain is truncated at is determined. Finally, the coil impedance and the magnetic distribution of eddy current testing system are obtained by finite element method, respectively. By comparison, the results from the theoretical calculation approach and finite element method are in very good agreement, and the accuracy of two approaches is validated with each other.

Accurate Crack Sizing of Land-Based Gas Turbine Blades by Eddy-Current Techniques

Japanese utilities are increasing their use of gas turbines for generation of electricity. In order to maintain competitive electricity rates, the utilities need to find ways to reduce maintenance costs. There is a need to develop nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods that can be applied to gas turbine blades in situ during periodic turbine maintenance, and to be able to use the NDE results and operating history to predict future degradation. This paper describes the development of methods for detecting cracks right under MCrAlY overlay coatings, and entimating crack depths from the results of eddy current testing. For these purposes, an eddy-current measurement system has been developed, and Ni-base superalloy specimens with the CoCrAlY coatings have been prepared for the eddy-current measurements. Notches simulating the cracks right under the coatings can be detected, discriminating from surface-breaking notches in the phase angles of their eddy-current responses. The proposed flaw-sizing approach can provide more accurately the estimated depths of the cracks, irrespective of their lengths.