Eczema In Infants Research Articles

Progress of the effect of maternal diet avoidance on infant eczema

Eczema is the most common and earliest allergic disease in infancy, which seriously affects the quality of life of infants.In recent years, the incidence of infant eczema has been on the rise and there is no radical cure .This article reviews the etiology of eczema, the concept and the mechanism of food intolerance associated with food-specific IgG, and the relationship between infant eczema and maternal food-specific IgG detection, and discusses the literatures about avoiding eczema and improving the mechanism of eczema in lactating mothers, aiming at helping to solve the problem of eczema partially from the source, reducing the pain of recurrent eczema in infant, and avoiding or reducing the adverse reactions to the babies. Key words: Infant eczema; Food intolerance; Food-specific IgG detection; Maternal diet

Children with East Asian-Born Parents Have an Increased Risk of Allergy but May Not Have More Asthma in Early Childhood

We previously reported that infants with Asian-born parents are 3 times more likely to have IgE-mediated food allergy than those with Australian-born parents. It is unknown whether this translates to the increased risk of other allergic diseases later in childhood and whether ancestry interacts with other risk factors for allergic disease development. To compare prevalence and risk factors for allergic rhinitis, asthma, and aeroallergen sensitization at age 6 between children with East Asian-born and Caucasian-born parents. A total of 5276 1-year-old infants were recruited into a population-based longitudinal study of allergy. A total of 4455 children participated in age 6 follow-up (84.4%), including 3015 with Caucasian-born parents and 415 with East Asian-born parents. Children underwent skin prick tests to aeroallergens and questionnaires captured data on asthma, eczema, and allergic rhinitis. Compared with children with Caucasian-born parents, children of East Asian-born parents had more allergic rhinitis (19.9% [95% confidence interval (CI) 14.9-26] vs 9.3% [95% CI 8-10.8], P < .001) and aeroallergen sensitization (64.3% [95% CI 57.5-70.5] vs 34.4% [95% CI 32.2-36.7], P<.001) at age 6. Asthma was similar in both groups (9.1% [95% CI 6.2-13.2] vs 11.7% [95% CI 10.4-13.1]), P= .21. Children with IgE-mediated food allergy and eczema in infancy were 3 times more likely to have asthma and 2 times more likely to have allergic rhinitis at age 6, irrespective of ancestry. Children of East Asian ancestry born in Australia have a higher burden of most allergic diseases in the first 6 years of life, whereas asthma may follow a different pattern. IgE-mediated food allergy and eczema at age 1 increase the risk of asthma and allergic rhinitis irrespective of ancestry.

Paradoxic eczema in infants following heart transplantation

Paradoxic eczema in infants following heart transplantation

The mother-offspring dyad, microbial transmission, immune interactions and allergy development

The increasing prevalence of allergy in affluent countries may be caused by reduced intensity and diversity of microbial stimulation, resulting in abnormal postnatal immune maturation. Most studies investigating the underlying immunomodulatory mechanisms have focused on postnatal microbial exposure, for example demonstrating that the gut microbiota differs in composition and diversity during the first months of life in children who later do or do not develop allergic disease. However, it is also becoming increasingly evident that the maternal microbial environment during pregnancy is important in childhood immune programming, and the first microbial encounters may occur already in utero. During pregnancy, there is a close immunological interaction between the mother and her offspring, which provides important opportunities for the maternal microbial environment to influence the immune development of the child. In support of this theory, combined pre- and postnatal supplementations seem to be crucial for the preventive effect of probiotics on infant eczema. Here, the influence of microbial and immune interactions within the mother–offspring dyad on childhood allergy development will be discussed. In addition, how perinatal transmission of microbes and immunomodulatory factors from mother to offspring may shape appropriate immune maturation during infancy and beyond, potentially via epigenetic mechanisms, will be examined. Deeper understanding of these interactions between the maternal and offspring microbiome and immunity is needed to identify efficacious preventive measures to combat the allergy epidemic.

Association of Infant Eczema with Childhood and Adult Asthma: Analysis of Data from the 1958 Birth Cohort Study.

The influence of early life exposures on later life disease has for some time provided clues to modifiable risk factors of disease. The “atopic march” is thought to play a role in the progression of allergic diseases and may offer an opportunity to lower asthma’s health and socioeconomic burden, although evidence remains controversial. We aimed to examine the relationship between early life eczema and asthma later in life. Using the National Child Development Study, we examined infant eczema and childhood and adult asthma. Data related to asthma or wheezing bronchitis were available for 13,503 (73%; 95% CI 72–74), 11,503 (61%; 95% CI 60–61), 12,524 (68%; 95% CI 67–69), 11,194 (60%; 95% CI 60–60), 9377 (51%; 95% CI 51–51), and 9760 (53%; 95% CI 52–53) subjects at ages 11, 16, 23, 33, 44, and 50 years, respectively. Logistic regression models were fitted to examine each wave separately before and after adjusting for a range of potential confounders. Generalised estimating equation (GEE) methods were undertaken to examine the associations after pooling all data from questionnaires. The prevalence of self-reported asthma in those that had previously reported infant eczema ranged from 1.0%; 95% CI 0.9–1.4 (age 44 years) to 2.2%; 95% CI 2.1–2.3 (age 33 years). Participants with infant eczema had a 2–3-fold increased risk of reporting asthma in childhood and adulthood; this was 1.6 times at age 44 years when using spirometry measures. Similar effect sizes were observed in the GEE models when considering all participants (OR 2.9; 95% CI 2.6–3.2). Childhood and adult asthma were consistently associated with infant eczema both by using the self-reported data and lung measures.

Comparison of the Efficacy of Topical Human Breast Milk versus Hydrocortisone 1% Lotion in the Clinical Improvement of Atopic Eczema in Infants: A Non-inferiority Trial

Comparison of the Efficacy of Topical Human Breast Milk versus Hydrocortisone 1% Lotion in the Clinical Improvement of Atopic Eczema in Infants: A Non-inferiority Trial

TGF-β Concentration in Breast Milk is Associated With the Development of Eczema in Infants.

Background: Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β in breast milk is crucial for mucosal immune system in the neonatal period. We hypothesized that the level of exposure to TGF-β from breast milk in the first month of life is related to the development of eczema later in life. Thus, the present study investigated whether changes in TGF-β levels between colostrum and mature milk are associated with such occurrence in a birth cohort study.Methods: Colostrum and 1-month breast milk samples were collected from mothers who participated in our birth cohort study. TGF-β1 and TGF-β2 levels in breast milk were measured using a commercial ELISA kit. The development of eczema in the first 6 months after birth was assessed based on parent's response to a questionnaire. Levels of TGF-β1 and TGF-β2 were compared in breast milk from mothers of infants with and without eczema.Results: In children with eczema, TGF-β1 levels were higher in colostrum, but lower in 1-month milk. A lower TGF-β1 ratio (1-month milk/colostrum) was related to the development of eczema during the first 6 months of life. There was no difference in TGF-β2 ratio (1-month milk/colostrum) between eczema group and control group.Conclusions: Concentration of TGF-β1 but not TGF-β2 in breast milk during the first month after birth may be associated with eczema later in life. Factors that increase TGF-β1 levels in breast milk may play a role in preventing allergic disease.

Is eczema in infancy associated with later food allergy in childhood?

Is eczema in infancy associated with later food allergy in childhood?

Determination of 42 glucocorticoids in infant eczema products by auto-solid phase extraction-ultra high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

A method was developed for the determination of 42 glucocorticoids in infant eczema products by auto-solid phase extraction-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (ASPE-UHPLC-MS/MS).The analytes were extracted by acetonitrile after dispersing in saturated sodium chloride solution.Macromolecules matrix were precipitated by adding potassium and zinc acetate, and then purified by HLB SPE column.The chromatographic separations were performed on a DIKMA EndeavorsilTM C18 column (100 mm×2.1 mm, 1.7 μm).Acetonitrile and 0.1%(v/v) formic acid aqueous solution were used as the mobile phases.Electrospray ionization (ESI) source was operated in the positive mode using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) scanning mode.The results were quantified by external standard method.The correlation coefficients of linear calibration curves were greater than 0.998 in the corresponding mass concentration ranges.The average recoveries at three spiked levels ranged from 78.7% to 101.5%, and the relative standard deviations (RSDs) were 2.0%-8.8%(n=6).The LODs (S/N ≥ 3) and LOQs were 0.002-0.031 mg/kg and 0.0007-0.103 mg/kg, respectively.The method is simple, rapid, sensitive, and reliable, and can be used for the detection of glucocorticoids in infant eczema products.

Maternal supplementation alone with Lactobacillus rhamnosus HN001 during pregnancy and breastfeeding does not reduce infant eczema.

In a randomized placebo-controlled trial, we previously found that the probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus HN001 (HN001) taken by mothers from 35weeks of gestation until 6months post-partum if breastfeeding and their child from birth to age 2years halved the risk of eczema during the first 2years of life. We aimed to test whether maternal supplementation alone is sufficient to reduce eczema and compare this to our previous study when both the mother and their child were supplemented. In this 2-centre, parallel double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial, the same probiotic as in our previous study (HN001, 6×109 colony-forming units) was taken daily by mothers from 14-16weeks of gestation till 6months post-partum if breastfeeding, but was not given directly to the child. Women were recruited from the same study population as the first study, where they or their partner had a history of treated asthma, eczema or hay fever. Women were randomized to HN001 (N=212) or placebo (N=211). Maternal-only HN001 supplementation did not significantly reduce the prevalence of eczema, SCORAD≥10, wheeze or atopic sensitization in the infant by 12months. This contrasts with the mother and child intervention study, where HN001 was associated with reductions in eczema (hazard ratio (HR): 0.39, 95% CI 0.19-0.79, P=.009) and SCORAD (HR=0.61, 95% 0.37-1.02). However, differences in the HN001 effect between studies were not significant. HN001 could not be detected in breastmilk from supplemented mothers, and breastmilk TGF-β/IgA profiles were unchanged. Maternal probiotic supplementation without infant supplementation may not be effective for preventing infant eczema.

Nested case-control study on the relationship between risk factors of pregnancy and infantile eczema in Uygur and Han ethnic

Objective To investigate the prevalence of infantile eczema in Uygur and Han nationalities and the relationship between pregnancy factors and 0-6 months infant eczema, so as to provide a scientific basis for formulating preventive strategies. Methods From January-August 2016 in the Xinjiang Autonomous Region People's Hospital of obstetric and follow-up to fill out the questionnaire in 570 pregnant women and their babies as the research object to establish the baseline survey cohort, pregnancy related information to pregnant women, and 6 months (January, March, on maternal June) follow-up, observe the occurrence of infantile eczema a total of 502, successful follow-up to maternal and child. Using nested case-control study, the cohort occurred in 182 cases of infant eczema as case group, will be in the queue without eczema in 320 infants as control group, using multivariate logistic regression analysis of risk factors during pregnancy baby eczema. Results 0-6 months infant eczema incidence rate was 36.25%, the incidence of Uygur infant eczema (20.43%) was significantly lower than that of Han nationality infant eczema incidence (50.19%) (OR=0.45,95%CI:0.35-0.69) P<0.01). Social and economic factors affecting the occurrence of infantile eczema comparison results showed that the ethnic factors and infant eczema, and more prone to eczema than that of Uygur nationality; and Uygur compared mothers influence allergic history of Han infantile eczema more (χ2=7.09, P=0.008). Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that the mother has a history of atopy (OR=7.17,95%CI: 4.15-12.37), mother′s education level (OR=1.91,95%CI:1.51-2.74), the higher the monthly income (OR=2.68,95%CI:2.17-3.33), maternal smoking during pregnancy (secondhand smoke) (OR=2.42,95% CI:1.96-2.97), frequently eating spicy spicy foods during pregnancy (OR=1.94,95% CI: 1.41-2.68) will increase the risk of infant eczema Supplementation of probiotics (OR=0.13,95% CI:0.07-0.25) and vitamin D (OR=0.13,95% CI:0.06-0.26) during pregnancy is a protective factor in the development of infantile eczema. Conclusions Compared to Uygur, Han Chinese infants are more likely occur eczema, and family history of allergies, education, economic income, pregnancy dietand smoking are risk factors for infant eczema. The same risk factors among Uygur and Han ethnic, but it had a different results. Compared to Han, Uygur pregnant women eating spicy food caused the risk of infant eczema occurrence is higher, but the short period of housing renovation caused the risk of infant eczema occurrence is lower. Therefore, it is necessary to strengthen nutrition andmonitor living environment during pregnancy. Avoiding to eat spicy food and supplying probiotics and vitamin D, it can prevent or reduce the occurrence of infantile eczema. Key words: Dermatitis, atopic; Fertile period; Risk factors; Nested case-control study

Maternal Consumption of Lactobacillus GG During Pregnancy Prevents Infant Eczema at 1 Year of Age

Objective: We investigated the effects of probiotic yogurt administration to mothers during late pregnancy on intestinal microbiota and the incidence rate of atopic eczema in infants at one year of age. Methods: Eighteen pregnant women were given 100 g of yogurt containing Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG), from day 1 of the 33rd week of gestation until parturition (LGG group), and the results obtained from their newborns were compared to those from infants born to 14 mothers who had not received this probiotic treatment (Control group). Lactobacillus GG bacteria (LGG bacteria) in infants’ feces at 4 and 6 months of age were compared using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The relationship between the detection rate of LGG bacteria and the presence or absence of eczema at the age of one year was evaluated. Results: The LGG bacteria detection rate at 4 months was significantly higher in the LGG than in control group (p<0.05), with a lower incidence rate of eczema in the LGG than in the control group (p<0.05). Among infants with eczema at 4 and 6 months, the rate of eczema clearing at 1 year was higher for the LGG than the control group (p<0.05). Administering LGG to pregnant women was effective in lower the incidence of eczema at 1 year, regardless of the LGG bacteria in infants (p<0.03). Conclusion: Giving LGG yogurt probiotics to pregnant women during late pregnancy is useful in preventing eczema in infants at 1 year of age.

Food Allergy Is an Important Risk Factor for Childhood Asthma, Irrespective of Whether It Resolves

The risk of developing asthma in those with early food allergy is unknown, particularly when early life food allergy has resolved. To understand whether challenge-proven food allergy in infancy increases the risk of asthma at age 4 years, using data from a population-based cohort. A total of 5,276 12-month-old infants were recruited using a population-based sampling frame. Infants underwent skin prick test to egg, peanut, and sesame and those with a detectable skin prick test result had oral food challenges. At age 4 years, food challenges were repeated to determine persistence or resolution of food allergy. The association between food allergy and doctor-diagnosed asthma was examined using binomial regression in 2,789 participants. Children with food allergy at age 1 year had an increased risk of asthma (1 food allergy: relative risk [RR], 1.69; 95% CI, 1.29-2.21; 2 or more food allergies: RR, 2.76; 95% CI, 1.94-3.92). The risk of asthma was highest in children with food allergy and coexistent eczema in infancy (RR, 2.87; 95% CI, 2.22-3.70). Transient food allergy and persistent food allergy were both associated with an increased risk of asthma (transient egg allergy: RR, 1.92; 95% CI, 1.46-2.51; persistent egg allergy: RR, 2.60; 95% CI, 1.76-3.85). Asthma at age 4 years is twice as common in those with challenge-proven food allergy at age 1 year, irrespective of whether the food allergy subsequently resolves. Children with 2 or more food allergies and those with coexistent eczema were almost 3 times as likely to develop asthma compared with those with no food allergies.

A prospective study of early maternal intervention on the prevention of infantile eczema effect

Objective To explore the effect of early maternal intervention and provide clinical suggestions for the prevention and treatment of infantile eczema. Methods A total of 340 pregnant woman who were receiving prenatal examine and giving birth to their children from January to June 2016 in People's Hospital of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region were selected in this study. The pregnant woman were divided into two groups--control group and observation group by the random number table method. Each group had 170 history cases. The control group was given regularly health guidance, and the observation group was added early intervention such as translate the latest information on the modern social media to them, and giving suggestions of diet and nutrition of infants and living environment. The proportion of risk factors -- the each group of infants' genetic history of allergies, birth of ways ,feeding pattern and the kind of environmental of which they exposure and so on were analyzed, then the incidence of eczema, the recurrence rate of eczema, the treatment effects and duration of eczema were contrasted. Results After 6 months of prospective follow-up, the observation group of cesarean section and exposing to smoking environmental proportion was respectively 48.82% (83/170),19.41% (33/170), was lower than that of control group 64.71% (110/170),42.35% (72/170),the difference between 2 groups was statistically significant (χ2=8.736, 20.958, P<0.01). The proportion of 4-6 months of exclusive breastfeeding and correctly adding supplement food respectively 52.35%(89/170), 78.24%(133/170), was higher than that in the control group 42.94%(73/170), 58.82%(100/170), the difference between 2 groups was statistically significant (χ2=3.418,14.851, P<0.01). After 6 months of prospective follow-up, the incidence and recurrence rate of infants eczema respectively in observation group was 25.88% (44/170), 22.73% (10/170),was lower than that in control group 49.41% (84/170),42.86% (36/170),the difference between 2 groups was statistically significant (χ2=20.047, 5.082, P<0.05).The treatment effect in observation group was superior to the control group. The last, the period of eczema was shorter than that of control group. All of them had statistical meaning(Z=8.876, 10.195,all P<0.05). Conclusions Early interventions can reduce the proportion of high-risk factors that could induce infant eczema, such as cesarean section, exposure to smoking, environmental and other factors. In order to reduce the incidence of infants eczema, improve family′s compliance, reduce eczema attack, improve symptoms, reduce the burden on the family to a great extent, to ensure the normal growth and development of infants, cut off the allergy process to prevent distal disease such as allergic asthma, allergic rhinitis etc. Key words: Dermititis, atopit; Early intervention; Prospective studies

The mother-offspring dyad: microbial transmission, immune interactions and allergy development.

The increasing prevalence of allergy in affluent countries may be caused by reduced intensity and diversity of microbial stimulation, resulting in abnormal postnatal immune maturation. Most studies investigating the underlying immunomodulatory mechanisms have focused on postnatal microbial exposure, for example demonstrating that the gut microbiota differs in composition and diversity during the first months of life in children who later do or do not develop allergic disease. However, it is also becoming increasingly evident that the maternal microbial environment during pregnancy is important in childhood immune programming, and the first microbial encounters may occur already in utero. During pregnancy, there is a close immunological interaction between the mother and her offspring, which provides important opportunities for the maternal microbial environment to influence the immune development of the child. In support of this theory, combined pre- and postnatal supplementations seem to be crucial for the preventive effect of probiotics on infant eczema. Here, the influence of microbial and immune interactions within the mother-offspring dyad on childhood allergy development will be discussed. In addition, how perinatal transmission of microbes and immunomodulatory factors from mother to offspring may shape appropriate immune maturation during infancy and beyond, potentially via epigenetic mechanisms, will be examined. Deeper understanding of these interactions between the maternal and offspring microbiome and immunity is needed to identify efficacious preventive measures to combat the allergy epidemic.

Effect of probiotics use on postpartum uterine health and reproductive performances

A healthy microbiome plays an important role in the prevention of illness and maintenance of overall health, including reproductive health. Although the therapeutic advantages of probiotics have been shown to run across multiple organ systems, their role in pregnancy is not well explored. The aim of this review is to highlight the potential advantages and adverse effects of probiotics in pregnancy. Data were collected from the literature over the past decade using PubMed, Medline, Google Scholar, Ovid, Scopus, and Science Direct. A total of 40 articles were utilized in this review. Collected data indicated that prenatal and post-natal supplementation with lactobacilli alone or lactobacilli with Bifidobacterium spp. seems to be protective. Probiotics may improve insulin resistance and consequently reduce the risk of gestational diabetes. Probiotics may also reduce anxiety and depression by influencing brain activity. Additionally, they interfere with vaginal flora to make it friendlier to beneficial bacteria, and enhance anti-inflammatory or reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines. They may also decrease eczema in breastfed infants and prevent allergic reactions by downregulating Th2 responses to specific allergens from mid to late gestation. Leveraging the cervicovaginal microbiota could promote a number of positive pregnancy-related health outcomes. Caution should be exercised in the selection, dosing, and monitoring of probiotics administration. More comprehensive randomized clinical trials are needed to reach a more meaningful evidence-based clinical knowledge.

Expression of the filaggrin gene in umbilical cord blood predicts eczema risk in infancy: A birth cohort study.

Filaggrin gene (FLG) expression, particularly in the skin, has been linked to the development of the skin barrier and is associated with eczema risk. However, knowledge as to whether FLG expression in umbilical cord blood (UCB) is associated with eczema development and prediction is lacking. This study sought to assess whether FLG expression in UCB associates with and predicts the development of eczema in infancy. Infants enrolled in a birth cohort study (n=94) were assessed for eczema at ages 3, 6, and 12months. Five probes measuring FLG transcripts expression in UCB were available from genomewide gene expression profiling. FLG genetic variants R501X, 2282del4, and S3247X were genotyped. Associations were assessed using Poisson regression with robust variance estimation. Area under the curve (AUC), describing the discriminatory/predictive performance of fitted models, was estimated from logistic regression. Increased level of FLG expression measured by probe A_24_P51322 was associated with reduced risk of eczema during the first year of life (RR=0.60, 95% CI: 0.38-0.95). In contrast, increased level of FLG antisense transcripts measured by probe A_21_P0014075 was associated with increased risk of eczema (RR=2.02, 95% CI: 1.10-3.72). In prediction models including FLG expression, FLG genetic variants, and sex, discrimination between children who will and will not develop eczema at 3months of age was high (AUC: 0.91, 95% CI: 0.84-0.98). This study demonstrated, for the first time, that FLG expression in UCB is associated with eczema development in infancy. Moreover, our analysis provided prediction models that were capable of discriminating, to a great extent, between those who will and will not develop eczema in infancy. Therefore, early identification of infants at increased risk of developing eczema is possible and such high-risk newborns may benefit from early stratification and intervention.

Influence of the Mediterranean diet during pregnancy in the development of wheezing and eczema in infants in Pamplona, Spain

BackgroundThis study examined the relationship between different food groups and the adherence to a Mediterranean diet during pregnancy and the risk of wheezing and eczema in children aged 12–15 months. MethodsThe study involves 1087 Spanish infants from the International Study of Wheezing in Infants (Estudio Internacional de Sibilancias en Lactantes, EISL). The study of the association of the different food consumption and Mediterranean diet with wheezing, recurrent wheezing and eczema was performed using different models of unconditional logistic regression to obtain adjusted prevalence odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). ResultsNo association was found between a good adherence to the Mediterranean diet during pregnancy and the development of wheezing (p=0.372), recurrent wheezing (p=0.118) and eczema (p=0.315). The consumption once or twice a week of white fish (OR: 1.95[1.01–3.75]), cooked potatoes (OR: 1.75[1.22–2.51]) and industrial pastry (OR: 1.59[1.13–2.24]), and the consumption more than three times a week of industrial pastry (OR: 1.47 [1.01–2.13]) during pregnancy increases the risk of “wheezing” at 12 months. Instead, high fruit consumption during the pregnancy has a protective effect against “wheezing” in 12-month-old infants (OR: 0.44 [0.20–0.99]). No statistically significant differences were observed between food intake during pregnancy and “recurrent wheezing”. No statistically significant differences were observed between the consumption of any food during pregnancy and the presence of eczema at 12 months. ConclusionsThe present study showed that the consumption of Mediterranean diet during pregnancy did not have a protective effect for wheezing, recurrent wheezing or eczema.

New approach shows no association between maternal milk fatty acid composition and childhood wheeze or asthma.

Previous observational studies have implied breastmilk fatty acid composition may play a role in the development of atopic eczema or atopic sensitization in breastfed infants and toddlers. However, studies investigating associations with wheeze and asthma in later childhood are scarce and did not account for inherent correlation of compositional data. Our aim was to explore the association of maternal milk fatty acid composition with childhood wheezing phenotypes and asthma up to age 13years using a new statistical approach. Breastmilk was collected 6weeks and 6months postdelivery in the Ulm Birth Cohort Study (n=720 and n=454, respectively). Concentrations of 28 fatty acids were measured by high-resolution capillary gas-liquid chromatography. To control for constant-sum constraint, concentration data were transformed using the centered log ratio method. Compositional biplots and correlation matrices were used to group centered log ratio transformed fatty acids. Adjusted risk ratios with parent-reported wheezing phenotypes and doctor-diagnosed asthma were computed using a modified Poisson regression. We observed no straightforward evidence of associations between overall breastmilk fatty acid composition and specific wheeze phenotypes or doctor-diagnosed asthma. Using appropriate statistical methodology, we report null associations. These findings may partly be attributable to several cohort-specific factors associated with breastfeeding and breastmilk collection. Further studies could improve on ours by analyzing samples of breastmilk and formula and by including all children for whom these are exclusively or together the major source of fatty acids in the first months of life.

Altered Gut Microbiota Composition Associated with Eczema in Infants

Eczema is frequently the first manifestation of an atopic diathesis and alteration in the diversity of gut microbiota has been reported in infants with eczema. To identify specific bacterial communities associated with eczema, we conducted a case-control study of 50 infants with eczema (cases) and 51 healthy infants (controls). We performed high-throughput sequencing for V3–V4 hypervariable regions of the 16S rRNA genes from the gut fecal material. A total of 12,386 OTUs (operational taxonomic units) at a 97% similarity level were obtained from the two groups, and we observed a difference in taxa abundance, but not the taxonomic composition, of gut microbiota between the two groups. We identified four genera enriched in healthy infants: Bifidobacterium, Megasphaera, Haemophilus and Streptococcus; and five genera enriched in infants with eczema: Escherichia/Shigella, Veillonella, Faecalibacterium, Lachnospiraceae incertae sedis and Clostridium XlVa. Several species, such as Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and Ruminococcus gnavus, that are known to be associated with atopy or inflammation, were found to be significantly enriched in infants with eczema. Higher abundance of Akkermansia muciniphila in eczematous infants might reduce the integrity of intestinal barrier function and therefore increase the risk of developing eczema. On the other hand, Bacteroides fragilis and Streptococcus salivarius, which are known for their anti-inflammatory properties, were less abundant in infants with eczema. The observed differences in genera and species between cases and controls in this study may provide insight into the link between the microbiome and eczema risk.