Ecotourism Operators Research Articles

Private Protected Areas in Latin America: Between conservation, sustainability goals and economic interests. A review

Worldwide, but particularly in Latin America, private protected areas (PPAs), including in mountain areas, have become increasingly numerous. In some Latin American countries, PPAs complement the public protected areas to a significant degree. Beneficiaries of these private protection initiatives, which often close gaps in fragmented biomes, may be governments or eco-tourism operators. Drawbacks of PPAs are the lack of clear definitions and ownership, the absence of suitable management, green grabbing, and limited government support. This article gives an overview of PPAs in mountain regions and presents the most important literature published so far.

Transformation Planning of Ecotourism Systems to Invigorate Responsible Tourism

The purpose of this study is to introduce transformation plans that can stimulate responsible ecotourism by using systems thinking to solve ecotourism problems in Korea. Systems thinking is a research method used to understand the operating mechanisms of the variables that influence an entire system, in order to identify its problems. The four types of ecotourism systems are classified as follows: low-infrastructure and resident-initiated, high-infrastructure and resident-initiated, high-infrastructure and government-initiated and low-infrastructure and government-initiated. These systems vary based on the need for tourism facilities and the form of governance. Each type of system is analyzed using the systems thinking process (dynamic thinking, causal thinking, feedback thinking, strategic thinking) at representative ecotourism sites in Jeollanam-do and the following transformation plans are proposed to improve the responsibility at the tourism sites: First, local residents will develop a system to manage and operate ecotourism ventures and establish cooperative governance structures to strengthen the local capacity. Second, ecotourism operators will improve the quality of their educational and interpretative programs and tourist information platforms in order to raise awareness of the responsibilities of ecotourists. Third, ecotourism systems that are improved through ecotourists’ and tour operators' heightened senses of responsibility can sustain ecotourism independently. These transformation plans can be applied to policy proposals for revitalizing ecotourism, to guidelines for improving community resilience and to biological habitat protection plans. This study is meaningful in that it discusses the role of stakeholders in ecotourism planning and promoting responsible tourism and their role in utilizing and conserving natural resources accordingly.

Comparison of characteristics of Asian and non-Asian tourists visiting eco-lodges in Sri Lanka

As the demand for ecotourism and nature-based tourism increases, eco-lodges are becoming a popular alternative accommodation choice. Consequently, the development of an ecolodge industry has wider implications for countries such as Sri Lanka, especially when considering the country’s high potential for ecotourism and the need to provide alternative forms of accommodation for increasing tourist arrivals. In the Sri Lankan context, the eco-lodge industry still remains relatively undeveloped and the understanding of characteristics of visitors who seek accommodation in eco-lodges is limited. In this study, the author distinguished Asian and non-Asian ecotourist market segments visiting ecolodges in Sri Lanka, to enable ecotourism operators and policy makers to better tailor their products to target groups. A survey of 362 ecolodge occupants in 16 selected ecolodges found that the Asian and non-Asian visitor segments differ in terms of travel motivations, their perceptions on various ecolodge attributes, trip characteristics and demographics. However, both age and level of education were found to be strongly related in other studies. The study found that non-Asian ecotourists stay for longer periods by comparison with Asian ecotourists. Seeking novel experiences appeared to be the main motivation of Asian ecolodge occupants, and they typically demanded physically challenging activities. Non-Asians’ motivation was friendliness of the people of the host country, followed by visiting nature and learning local customs. The management implications of distinguishing the Asian and non-Asian market segments are discussed.

Characterisation and monitoring of one of the world's most valuable ecotourism animals, the southern stingray at Stingray City, Grand Cayman

Southern stingrays (Hypanus americanus) represent a multimillion dollar ecotourism operation in Grand Cayman, interacting with over a million visitors annually. Over 30 years of stingray provisioning by tour operators has provided a predictable aggregation at the Stingray City Sandbar (SCS). Despite potentially negative effects of provisioning and concerns about declining stingray numbers at SCS, there has never been a formal assessment of the aggregation. In the present study we analysed tagging data from 2002 to 2015 and established structured censuses monitoring the aggregation. The consistently female-dominated aggregation declined between 2008 and 2012, from >100 to <60 stingrays, but has increased since 2012, stabilising at ~90 stingrays. Female site fidelity was high, with ~20% of females resident for ≥10 years, compared with only 3 years for most males. Stingrays were also found to have growth rates similar to those in captivity. The results of the present study suggest the SCS aggregation is highly dependent on individuals arriving from the island-wide stingray population, susceptible to perturbation, and that successful management of activities at SCS will benefit from regular monitoring of the stingray aggregation. We chronicle the historical status of this well-known and economically valuable marine resource and provide suggestions applicable towards sustainable human–marine wildlife interactions for similar resources.

Constraints of community participation in protected area-based tourism planning: the case of Malawi

ABSTRACTAn approach to tourism development that emphasises the need for community participation in tourism planning is advocated as a pathway to sustainable tourism and poverty alleviation. However, it is argued that the community participation concept originated in the developed world and faces different and context-specific limitations when applied in developing countries. This paper examines the implementation of local community participation in planning associated with ecotourism in protected areas in Malawi. The views of villagers, along with other key stakeholders, including ecotourism operators, protected area management agencies, government departments and non-governmental organisations were investigated through a qualitative study undertaken around the two case-study sites of Liwonde National Park and Majete Wildlife Reserve. Data were collected through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, and was thematically analysed. The findings reveal significant limiting factors affecting community participation in ecotourism planning in Malawi, including: apathy; inadequate financial resources; inadequate information; low education levels; unfair distribution of benefits; lack of trained human resources; a centralised public administration; lack of coordination; and human–wildlife conflicts. The findings indicate the need for both greater advocacy of community participation, and the need to incorporate specific strategies which can facilitate community participation that are tailored to developing country contexts.

The role of private sector ecotourism in local socio-economic development in southern Africa

ABSTRACTEcotourism is frequently put forward as a potential solution for local development and biodiversity conservation in developing countries. Numerous researchers have looked at the various impacts of ecotourism on development and on conservation. There are, however, few studies looking at the role of stakeholders and the impact they are having on local development. We look specifically at the role of private sector stakeholders in local ecotourism development in southern Africa. We focus on one ecotourism operator, Wilderness Safaris, and our results are based on a desktop analysis of various reports, field work and data from a Ph.D. study looking at the socio-economic impact of private sector ecotourism on local communities. The results show that the private sector has an important role to play in local socio-economic development in terms of employment creation, skills training and development, the payment of lease fees as well as through philanthropic development projects. Recommendations are put forward as to how the private sector can further effect positive change in the areas where it is operating and ensure long-term sustainability.

Who wants to be an eco-entrepreneur? Identifying entrepreneurial types and practices in ecotourism businesses

Entrepreneurs have been characterized according to recognizable types according to attendant concerns and motivations. Within the small business sector of ecotourism, entrepreneurs must balance competing goals pertaining to business objectives, lifestyle aspirations and, most importantly, sustainable environmental practices. This study reports how ecotourism eco-entrepreneurs perceive and manage these goals, consistent with concerns and motivations, based on semi-structured interviews of small business operators. The findings show that eco-entrepreneurs’ social and sustainable characteristics are critical to overcome financially challenging and complex operating environments whilst also delivering a desired lifestyle. As a business strategy, eco-entrepreneurs were found to deliberately maintain small, low-impact ecotourism operations consistent with identified eco-values. Looking forward, eco-entrepreneurs forecast imminent threats to the ecotourism sector through uncontrolled development and mass-tourism business access to sensitive natural areas. If unresolved, this process will replace eco-entrepreneurs in small ecotourism operators with traditional profit-oriented entrepreneurs delivering undifferentiated and high-impact nature-based tourism experiences.

Mitigating damaging behaviors of snorkelers to coral reefs in Puerto Rico through a pre-trip media-based intervention

There is widespread consensus that recreational snorkelers are damaging coral reefs, but the magnitude of the issue is unknown. Loss of reefs jeopardizes tourism, which is a significant economic driver. Recreational snorkeling is a popular activity and yet there has been little research about the behavior of snorkelers at reefs. The authors carried out observations at several reef locations in Puerto Rico to determine the baseline level of snorkeler behavior that threatens coral reefs. From August of 2010 until June 2012, they observed 328 different recreational snorkelers in-water at various reef locations and recorded number and types of potentially damaging behaviors. Snorkelers exhibited 0.26 potentially damaging behaviors per minute. Most were fin kicks (39%) and the next most frequent behavior was sitting, standing or kneeling on the reef (22%). The authors asked a subset of the people who were observed to make self-reports of their behavior, evaluated the accuracy of self-reports, and found that people underreported their potentially harmful behaviors. The authors experimented with a video message and signed pledge to promote proper snorkeling etiquette. From March 2012 until June 2012, snorkelers watched the video and signed the pledge before they boarded a tour operator led excursion. The pledge expressed commitment to specific pro-reef behaviors. Post-treatment in-water observations of 79 different snorkelers found a five-fold reduction in the rate of potentially damaging behaviors. Furthermore, the percentage of snorkelers who never harmed the reef shot up from 65% to 89%. The research suggests the pre-trip messaging together with a written pledge can change behaviors, thus improving the ability of ecotourism operators to help sustain reefs as well as the economic livelihoods of their employees.

Sex‐specific and individual preferences for hunting strategies in white sharks

Summary Fine‐scale predator movements may be driven by many factors including sex, habitat and distribution of resources. There may also be individual preferences for certain movement strategies within a population which can be hard to quantify. Within top predators, movements are also going to be directly related to the mode of hunting, for example sit‐and‐wait or actively searching for prey. Although there is mounting evidence that different hunting modes can cause opposing trophic cascades, there has been little focus on the modes used by top predators, especially those in the marine environment. Adult white sharks (Carcharhodon carcharias) are well known to forage on marine mammal prey, particularly pinnipeds. Sharks primarily ambush pinnipeds on the surface, but there has been less focus on the strategies they use to encounter prey. We applied mixed hidden Markov models to acoustic tracking data of white sharks in a coastal aggregation area in order to quantify changing movement states (area‐restricted searching (ARS) vs. patrolling) and the factors that influenced them. Individuals were re‐tracked over multiple days throughout a month to see whether state‐switching dynamics varied or if individuals preferred certain movement strategies. Sharks were more likely to use ARS movements in the morning and during periods of chumming by ecotourism operators. Furthermore, the proportion of time individuals spent in the two different states and the state‐switching frequency, differed between the sexes and between individuals. Predation attempts/success on pinnipeds were observed for sharks in both ARS and patrolling movement states and within all random effects groupings. Therefore, white sharks can use both a ‘sit‐and‐wait’ (ARS) and ‘active searching’ (patrolling) movements to ambush pinniped prey on the surface. White sharks demonstrate individual preferences for fine‐scale movement patterns, which may be related to their use of different hunting modes. Marine top predators are generally assumed to use only one type of hunting mode, but we show that there may be a mix within populations. As such, individual variability should be considered when modelling behavioural effects of predators on prey species.

Multi-Year Impacts of Ecotourism on Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus) Visitation at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia

In-water viewing of sharks by tourists has become a popular and lucrative industry. There is some concern that interactions with tourists with ecotourism operations might harm sharks through disruption of behaviours. Here, we analysed five years of whale shark (Rhincodon typus) encounter data by an ecotourism industry at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia, to assess the impact of ecotourism interactions on shark visitation, within the context of the biological and physical oceanography of the region. Our data base consisted of 2823 encounter records for 951 individual whale sharks collected by ecotourism operators between 2007 and 2011. We found that total encounters per whale shark and encounters per boat trip increased through time. On average, whale sharks re-encountered in subsequent years were encountered earlier, stayed longer and tended to be encountered more often within a season than sharks that were only encountered in a single year. Sequential comparisons between years did not show any patterns consistent with disturbance and the rate of departure of whale sharks from the aggregation was negatively correlated to the number of operator trips. Overall, our analysis of this multi-year data base found no evidence that interactions with tourists affected the likelihood of whale shark re-encounters and that instead, physical and biological environmental factors had a far greater influence on whale shark visitation rates. Our approach provides a template for assessing the effects of ecotourism interactions and environmental factors on the visitation patterns of marine megafauna over multiple years.

Good governance strategies for sustainable ecotourism in Tanzania

This article assesses the role of good governance strategies in sustaining ecotourism. Using a qualitative method through exploratory research design, 18 good governance strategies that promote sustainable ecotourism were identified. Thereafter, a specific stakeholder survey (n = 250) was conducted in the eastern and northern tourist circuits in Tanzania. Through the discrete choice binary logit model, relationships between the identified strategies and specified ecotourism sustainability indicators were analysed by looking for the strategies that are more associated with each indicator. The findings show that sustainability of ecotourism in the country is mainly jeopardised by inadequate transparency, poor accountability practices and weak integration mechanisms between ecotourism operations and the country's development plans. As a result, poor governance has led to unproductive planning, inefficiencies and mismanagement of ecotourism resources. The study concluded by recommending accountability, transparency and integration between economic activities in order to ensure that ecotourism meets the needs of both current and future generations.

Marketing Mix of Ecotourism Product in Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia

Entrepreneurship and formation of new businesses are important in creating and maintaining a competitive economy. The main purpose of this research is to examine the demographic and business profile of the ecotourism operators and identify the relationship that takes place between the 4P marketing strategy (product, prices, promotion and places) with market competitiveness in terms of cost control, competitive challenges, quality of service, tourist arrival statistics and agency’s role. This research will identify the aspects in the 4P marketing strategy that will have impact on the competitiveness of the market. This study was carried out in Kuching, Sarawak; however, only 4 areas of ecotourism around Kuching were selected which are Waterfront Kuching, Sarawak Cultural Village, Bukit Santubong, and Damai Beach Resort. The respondents for this study were ecotourism operators, and a total of 86 operators were involved in this research. The processed data were analysed using Spearman correlation analysis and cross tab. Results of the study showed that the majority of the ecotourism operators are women and the type of business conducted is service oriented. The aspects of promotion, product, price and place marketing have influenced the competitiveness of the ecotourism market in Kuching, Sarawak. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n4s3p39

Ethical and sustainability dimensions of foodservice in Australian ecotourism businesses

The first decades of the twenty-first century are witnessing growing public interest in the ethical and sustainability dimensions of food production and consumption. Increasing numbers of consumers are buying meat that has been produced using ‘free-range’ rather than intensive, ‘factory-farm’ methods and for seafood harvested from sustainable fisheries. This paper examines the ethics and sustainability of food provision within the specific context of ecotourism. The websites of a sample of Australian accredited ecotourism businesses were subjected to content analysis to assess the extent to which ethical and sustainability dimensions of food production, distribution and consumption were mentioned and discussed. Findings suggest that overall very few ecotourism businesses mention ethical and sustainability dimensions of food on their websites. Food and wine ecotourism operators were more likely than ecolodges or wildlife tourism operators to acknowledge aspects of ethical sourcing of food and food sustainability. Operators with the highest level of ecotourism certification did not perform better than other operators in terms of the website descriptions of their foodservice business practices in relation to ethics and sustainability.

생태체험마을 방문 동기에 따른 시장세분화

The purpose of this study was to examine the motives of tourists who visited ecotourism villages in Korea. A self-administered survey was obtained from 254 visitors in six ecotourism villages. As for the motivations of ecotourism village visitors, four factors (`relaxation`, `adventure`, `experience natural` and `family togetherness`) were extracted. Three distinct segments were identified based on the motivation : multipurpose seekers (45.3%), relaxation seekers (34.6%), family togetherness seekers (20.1%). Socio-demographic characteristics and tourism behaviors of each segmentation were also analyzed. The findings should be of interest to practitioners of ecotourism village marketing and operation.

Partnership between a private sector ecotourism operator and a local community in the Okavango Delta, Botswana: the case of the Okavango Community Trust and Wilderness Safaris

The majority of Africa is characterised by high levels of poverty, high population densities and limited economic development. Botswana is, however, different in having the highest gross domestic product per capita in Africa, relatively low population densities and high levels of socio-economic development. Inequality, however, remains high. A community-based natural resource management programme was introduced in 1989 to ensure that local communities benefit from the country's abundant natural resources, with the hope that they will then protect them. Partnerships between the private sector and local communities evolved from this. Okavango Wilderness Safaris, a private sector ecotourism operator, has relationships with three community trusts: Okavango Community Trust (OCT), Sankuyo Community Development Trust and the Khwai Development Trust. This paper looks specifically at the partnership with the OCT. Based on ecotourism staff and non-staff interview results, an analysis of this relationship reveals that there are socio-economic benefits to be received, but the distribution of these is limited. Socio-economic benefits to individual community households can be substantial, but overall community benefit distribution needs to be reassessed. Overall socio-economic impacts of the partnership are examined and suggestions for enhancing private sector/community relationships are put forward, based on the interview results and personal observations.

Ecotourism and primate habituation: Behavioral variation in two groups of white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus) from Costa Rica.

The increase of ecotourism operations within Costa Rica during the last 20 yrs has brought more and more humans into close, direct contact with several wildlife species. One of these species is the white-faced capuchin (Cebus capucinos), highly gregarious, and with exposure over time, willing to come into close vicinity of humans and their developments. Such contact has its advantages and disadvantages for the ecotourism industry. We observed white-faced monkeys in order to assess the impact of human presence and development on monkey behavior, with a focus on aggressive, affiliative, and foraging behaviors in Curú Wildlife Refuge (CWR), located in Puntarenas, Costa Rica, and to ascertain the degree of over-habituation of capuchin popula- tions at CWR. Though there exists no discrete behavioral parameters that measure over-habituation, it can be defined as an extreme state of habituation in which non-human primates not only lose fear of humans, but also actively include humans in social interactions or treat them as a food resource. We used instantaneous focal animal and group scan sampling during 8 wks in March and April 2012. Two groups (approximately 20-30 individuals each) of capuchins were observed; the first near the tourist development at the Southwestern area of CWR, representing a habituated population that regularly foraged, rested, and groomed in the presence of humans. The second, was observed in the Northeastern area of CWR, did not visit the center of human activity and exhibited fear of humans. The habituated group exhibited significantly fewer instances of threatened behavior in response to human presence (p < 0.0001) than the non-habituated group, and spent significantly more time eating and foraging (p < 0.0001). While the habituated monkeys at CWR may not be over-habituated, they could become that way as development, especially ecotourism, increases. Over-habituation is a problem that affects capuchins in certain ecotourism sites in Costa Rica. It is critical that the consequences of habituation be studied more carefully, primarily in areas where ecotourism operations draw visitors to wildlife habitats.

Elevated elephant density does not improve ecotourism opportunities: convergence in social and ecological objectives

In order to sustainably conserve biodiversity, many protected areas, particularly private protected areas, must find means of self-financing. Ecotourism is increasingly seen as a mechanism to achieve such financial sustainability. However, there is concern that ecotourism operations are driven to achieve successful game-viewing, influencing the management of charismatic species. An abundance of such species, including the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), has been stocked in protected areas under the assumption that they will increase ecotourism value. At moderate to high densities, the impact of elephants is costly; numerous studies have documented severe changes in biodiversity through the impacts of elephants. Protected areas that focus on maintaining high numbers of elephants may therefore face a conflict between socioeconomic demands and the capacity of ecological systems. We address this conflict by analyzing tourist elephant-sighting records from six private and one statutory protected area, the Addo Elephant National Park (AENP), in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, in relation to elephant numbers. We found no relationship between elephant density and elephant-viewing success. Even though elephant density in the AENP increased over time, a hierarchical partitioning analysis indicated that elephant density was not a driver of tourist numbers. In contrast, annual tourist numbers for the AENP were positively correlated with general tourist numbers recorded for South Africa. Our results indicate that the socioeconomic and ecological requirements of protected areas in terms of tourism and elephants, respectively, converge. Thus, high elephant densities and their associated ecological costs are not required to support ecotourism operations for financial sustainability. Understanding the social and ecological feedbacks that dominate the dynamics of protected areas, particularly within private protected areas, can help to elucidate the management challenges of minimizing ecological trade-offs while meeting ecotourist demands and achieving sustainability.

In search of the snow leopard: a new take on conservation-based ecotourism for Natural Habitat Adventures

Emily Deemer is the Marketing and Sustainability Manager at Natural Habitat Adventures, a wildlife ecotourism operator based in Louisville, CO, USA. Following four years working in the educational ...

The impact of ecotourism employment on rural household incomes and social welfare in six southern African countries

Rural African communities are largely characterised by high levels of unemployment and poverty, low skills levels and a heavy reliance on natural resources. Increasing populations, together with the impacts of climate change, are putting pressure on natural resources and the issue of sustainable land use is becoming critically important. Ecotourism is one possible sustainable land use which can also assist with both local socio-economic development and biodiversity conservation. This paper looks at the impact of ecotourism employment on rural household incomes and overall social welfare in six southern African countries. Extensive socio-economic interview schedules were conducted in camps run by Wilderness Safaris in Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. A total of 385 staff interviews were conducted in 16 high-end ecotourism camps, constituting a majority of the staff in these camps. A further 1400 community interviews were conducted in over 30 rural communities associated with these ecotourism camps. Two types of community members are differentiated in this study: those directly employed in a high-end ecotourism operation (staff) and those not employed in the high-end ecotourism operation (non-staff). For every camp, both groups of respondents were from the same community, living either in or around the protected area where the ecotourism operation was situated; allowing for comparisons between the two groups. The results show that rural households are relying heavily on the market economy, largely in the form of ecotourism, for support and highlight ecotourism employment’s important role in local socio-economic development in remote, rural areas. The results also highlight the importance of formal education, livelihood diversification and other formal employment in these areas. Suggestions for increasing the benefits to local communities are put forward.

オーストラリアエコツーリズム事業者のWebによる情報発信とアンケートによる利用者評価

オーストラリアエコツーリズム事業者のWebによる情報発信とアンケートによる利用者評価