Production Of Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Cultural functional groups associated with birds relate closely to avian ecological functions and services

The global rapid decline of ecological systems has highlighted the potential of ecosystem functions to drive conservation discourse. Ecosystem functions underpin important ecosystem services, and have been described for birds in South Africa based on measurable ecological traits (physiological, structural, behavioural, or phenological characteristics), as well as cultural functions (human preferences for morphological and behavioural traits). Understanding the spatial relationships between ecological and cultural functions can provide insight into the extent to which cultural services of birds are correlated with different ecological functions, and identify potential synergies in the distribution of cultural and ecological services. Here we show that when correcting for the effect of species richness and spatial autocorrelation on functional group richness, there is a clear correlation between avian cultural and ecological functional groups in South Africa (r = 0.6, t = 32.20, df = 1936, p < 0.05), suggesting that cultural functions are strongly correlated with ecologically relevant traits, despite their production being primarily mediated through human perception. This relationship was highly correlated in National Parks (r = 0.75, t = 14.95, df = 182, p < 0.05). For conservation initiatives that aim to maximise both ecosystem function and ecosystem service production, it is critical to identify and support synergies in the distribution of different functional groups to promote the production of multiple ecosystem services.

Linking Flood Risk Mitigation and Food Security: An Analysis of Land-Use Change in the Metropolitan Area of Rome

Land consumption and climate change have intensified natural disasters in urban areas. In response to these emergencies under the European 2030 Agenda, Sustainable Development Goals have been established to improve ecosystem protection and increase resilience and adaptation to natural disasters globally (Goal 13 “Climate action” and Goal 15 “Life on land”). In order to implement governance tools appropriately, it is necessary to know the relationships among the drivers, the changes in the state of urban ecosystems and agro-ecosystems, and the impact on the supply of goods and services at spatial and temporal scales. In this paper, Land-Use and Land-Cover Changes (LULCCs) in the metropolitan area of Rome have been investigated, with the purpose of detecting the synergistic variations in the supply of the flood mitigation and agricultural production ecosystem services (ES). The methodology is based on a GIS (Geographic Information System) analysis that identifies the transformation processes and permanencies related to land-cover. The variation in flood mitigation services was quantified through the use of the Urban Flood Risk Mitigation Model (UFRM) from the InVEST (Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs) suite, while the variation in agricultural production through productivity coefficients was associated with changes in land-uses. Finally, an analysis of LULC-induced synergies and trade-offs between the two services was performed. The results show a net negative change in ES supply, caused mainly by urbanization at the expense of agricultural land. This decrease in ES supply is not offset by other LULCC transitions. In addition, the analysis of synergies and trade-offs between flood mitigation ES and agricultural production ES (in arable land, orchards, vineyards, and olive groves) shows that the reduction of agricultural land negatively affects both ES. The innovative contribution of this paper lies in setting an integrated methodology that is able to investigate how LULCC influences both hydraulic safety and food security. Findings can be useful to support planning of enhancing the role of agriculture in metropolitan areas.

Modelling the influence of thinning intensity and frequency on the future provision of ecosystem services in Mediterranean mountain pine forests

Thinnings are silvicultural operations that repetitively reduce tree density to improve the vigour of the remaining trees and the economic benefits of the stands. Thinning can also enhance the provision of various ecosystem services throughout the rotation period. In this study, we use a modelling approach to evaluate stand dynamics and the provision of ecosystem services (mushroom production, wood for timber, carbon storage, blue water, and habitat for biodiversity) in Mediterranean mountain pine forests. We simulated thirteen thinning regimes—defined by intensity and frequency—under two different climate change scenarios. We implemented the thinning regimes using SORTIE-ND, an individual-based model of forest dynamics, and then we used models developed for the study area to calculate the provision of services. We used as a case study Pinus sylvestris and Pinus nigra stands, and we evaluated the effect of the thinning regime, climate change, and forest type over 100 years. Our simulations suggest that the production of timber and carbon decreased with increasing intensity and shortening frequency of thinnings, while the provision of mushrooms and blue water generally increased under those conditions. Large timber was better supported by a thinning regime with heavy intensity and shorter frequencies, which also favoured the rapid presence of large dead trees (dbh > 30 cm) in the stand. We found synergies between the production of timber and carbon, while the provision of mushrooms and particularly blue water were in a trade-off relationship with these services. Our simulations show that climate change will lower the production of ecosystem services under the most severe climate predictions and alter the effect of different regimes on the provision of services. We conclude that our modelling approach is a useful and efficient tool for answering questions that would otherwise require long-term studies, and that it can provide useful information to guide management efforts to adapt forest management to the challenges of climate change.

Spatial Prioritization of Ecosystem Services for Land Conservation: The Case Study of Central Italy

Ecosystem services delivered by natural ecosystems are increasingly important for climate change adaptation and mitigation and play a huge role in biodiversity conservation. For this reason, the EU has the ambitious goal of protecting at least 30% of land by 2030. Member states are called to improve and expand the network of protected areas within the next few years; to do so, scientific studies aimed at identifying areas with high ecological value, as well as at defining best management practices, are highly needed. In this study, we used the InVEST suite of models to spatially assess three regulating ecosystem services, that is, carbon storage, seasonal water yield, and urban flood risk mitigation in three administrative regions of central Italy. Using overlay analysis, we found areas with the highest delivery in each of the considered ESs; based on these findings, we eventually proposed four new protected areas, which combine for 888 km2, that is, 2.73% of the study area. Interestingly, each of the newly proposed protected areas has somehow been discussed and hypothesized by stakeholders, but only one is presumably going to be part of the national network of protected areas within the next years. Hopefully, by prioritizing areas according to the production of ecosystem services, this study can be intended as a step towards the systematic inclusion of ecosystem services studies for enhancing the network of areas under national protection schemes and achieving the goal of protecting at least 30% of land in Europe by 2030.

Potential degradation of mamar functions in ecosystem services Production: the cases of Benlutu Village, West Timor

Mamar is a traditional agroforestry in West Timor which has many benefits for the people of this region. This paper aims to identify the potential degradation of Mamar functions in the production of ecosystem services in Benlutu Village which is one of the oldest Mamars in West Timor. This paper was compiled from the results of research at the end of 2020 and the results of a desk review of relevant writings in 2022. The method in this research was in-depth interviews and field observations covering changes in land cover in Benlutu Village. in 2000, 2010, 2020; identify soil damage for biomass production; and Significant Value Index. The results of the study indicate that there is a conflict of interest in the management of Benlutu Mamar which has the potential to reduce the production of ecosystem services on a large scale; For soil damage, one parameter was found that was classified as damaged, namely electrical conductivity. Based on IVI calculation data, Areca catechu as a plant with cultural characteristics is still dominant with a poles rate of 61.35%. It was concluded that there is a potential for degradation of Mamar's function in the production of large ecosystem services.

Combinatorial Maps, a New Framework to Model Agroforestry Systems.

Agroforestry systems are complex due to the diverse interactions between their elements, and they develop over several decades. Existing numerical models focus either on the structure or on the functions of agroforestry systems. However, both of these aspects are necessary, as function influences structure and vice versa. Here, we present a representation of agroforestry systems based on combinatorial maps (which are a type of multidimensional graphs), that allows conceptualizing the structure-function relationship at the agroecosystem scale. We show that such a model can represent the structure of agroforestry systems at multiple scales and its evolution through time. We propose an implementation of this framework, coded in Python, which is available on GitHub. In the future, this framework could be coupled with knowledge based or with biophysical simulation models to predict the production of ecosystem services. The code can also be integrated into visualization tools. Combinatorial maps seem promising to provide a unifying and generic description of agroforestry systems, including their structure, functions, and dynamics, with the possibility to translate to and from other representations.

Spatial dynamics of biophysical trade-offs and synergies among ecosystem services in the Himalayas

The production of ecosystem services (ES) is highly dependent on the current state of spatial distribution, pattern of occurrence, and interaction among them, which is barely studied in the Hindu-Kush Himalayas (HKH). Taking a case of a multifunctional landscape in the central HKH region, we aimed to assess the biophysical production possibilities of major ES, their relationships and co-occurrence, and dynamic interactions at different spatial scales. We quantified and mapped six major ES (crop production, timber production, carbon sequestration, soil conservation, water yield, and habitat quality) at two spatial scales: landscape level (functional unit) and watershed level (management unit). Further, we analysed the relationship and interactions among all the possible pairs of the considered ES. All six ES were found to have a positive correlation, except crop production which showed a significant negative correlation with soil conservation. Moreover, we delineated 186 watersheds in the landscape and clustered them based on their biophysical potentials for the supply of ES. Gap statistics from K-means clustering identified three main clusters of watersheds (i.e., agriculture-dominated, poor-performing uplands, and multifunctional). The supply of ES from downstream watersheds was substantially higher than that of the upstream watersheds. We then discussed the interrelationships among ES at various spatial scales and suggested policy instruments for ecosystem management. The relationship among ES shows dynamic forms of spatial distribution, which need to be sustainably managed for minimizing trade-offs and maximizing synergies through the consideration of an integrated watershed management approach, improved agronomy practices, and global climate actions.

Terrestrial protected areas: Understanding the spatial variation of potential and realized ecosystem services

Terrestrial protected areas (TPAs) have become a keystone in nature conservation and environmental policy-making because they provide a potpourri of ecosystem services—benefits that are foundational for human existence and well-being. The intensity of ecosystem services production (i.e., potential) and use (i.e., realized) from a TPA depends on several variables such as ecosystem type, TPA size, population in the region, and development infrastructure. However, little is known about how ecosystem services intensity varies in relation to these variables. The TPAs provide a rich setting to investigate these relationships in support of better management for both TPAs and ecosystem services. Here, using the Co$ting Nature model, I map the potential and realized ecosystem services intensity from 140 of Pakistan's TPAs. To ascertain the direct impacts on realized ecosystem services, I use ArcGIS and InVEST tools to infer three spatial variables: TPA size (area), TPA distance from the nearest urban center, and visitation rates to the TPA. Results from the statistical analyses show that potential and realized ecosystem services are positively and significantly correlated, meaning increased supply results in more use. Yet, both are negatively correlated with TPA size and distance from the urban centers. Finally, a multivariate regression analysis is conducted considering potential ecosystem services and the selected three spatial variables as predictors for realized ecosystem services. The analysis indicates that potential ecosystem services and the size of a TPA are both significant for realized ecosystem services, with the potential services positively and TPA size negatively correlated with realized ecosystem services. The data generated and the results obtained in the study can inform the protection, stewardship, and expansion of TPAs at national and global scales.

Conservation Agriculture as a Sustainable System for Soil Health: A Review

Soil health is a term used to describe the general state or quality of soil, and in an agroecosystem, soil health can be defined as the ability of the soil to respond to agricultural practices in a way that sustainably supports both agricultural production and the provision of other ecosystem services. Conventional agricultural practices cause deterioration in soil quality, increasing its compaction, water erosion, and salinization and decreasing soil organic matter, nutrient content, and soil biodiversity, which negatively influences the productivity and long-term sustainability of the soil. Currently, there are many evidences throughout the world that demonstrate the capability of conservation agriculture (CA) as a sustainable system to overcome these adverse effects on soil health, to avoid soil degradation and to ensure food security. CA has multiple beneficial effects on the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil. In addition, CA can reduce the negative impacts of conventional agricultural practices on soil health while conserving the production and provision of soil ecosystem services. Today, agricultural development is facing unprecedented challenges, and CA plays a significant role in the sustainability of intensive agriculture. This review will discuss the impact of conservation agricultural practices on soil health and their role in agricultural sustainability.

Ecosystem Services: A Social and Semantic Network Analysis of Public Opinion on Twitter.

Social media data reveal patterns of knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours of users on a range of topics. This study analysed 4398 tweets gathered between 17 January 2022 and 3 February 2022 related to ecosystem services, using the keyword and hashtag "ecosystem services". The Microsoft Excel plugin, NodeXL was used for social and semantic network analysis. The results reveal a loosely dense network in which information is conveyed slowly, with homogeneous, medium-sized subgroups typical of the community cluster structure. Citizens, NGOs, and governmental administrations emerged as the main gatekeepers of information in the network. Various semantic themes emerged such as the protection of natural capital for the sustainable production of ecosystem services; nature-based solutions to protect human structures and wellbeing against natural hazards; socio-ecological systems as the interaction between human beings and the environment; focus on specific services such as the storage of atmospheric CO2 and the provision of food. In conclusion, the perception of social users of the role of ecosystem services can help policymakers and forest managers to outline and implement efficient forest management strategies and plans.

Economic valuation of ecosystem services for application of circular economy approach in conservation of Kundapura mangroves of Karnataka, India

AbstractCoastal areas are overwhelmingly rich in resources and support the livelihoods of the local communities. Coastal mangrove ecosystem provides a wide range of goods and services for human needs and wellbeing. To value conservation benefits of 252.29 ha extent of Kundapura mangrove ecosystem's goods and services, an economic valuation study was conducted using Systems of Environmental Economics Accounting (SEEA) framework. In total, seven ecosystem benefits were identified under provisioning, regulating and cultural services categories of SEEA. Identified baskets of benefits are fisheries, timber, fuelwood, protection against storms and floods, water quality maintenance, carbon sequestration, recreation and tourism. Out of seven benefits, the present study has found that the disturbance regulation benefit's contribution, which is about 92.65% of overall benefits with its economic value, US$1.786 million per year (17.86 lakh). Disturbance regulation benefit has significant role in reducing the impact of vulnerability from coastal hazards and sheltering 4354 individuals of population occupying 1088 houses. Despite that fact, Kundapura mangrove's assets are being degraded by various negative externalities. Particularly reclamation for aquaculture purpose and consequent discharging of the effluents, and dumping of sludge and municipal solid wastes (MSWs). These externalities would exacerbate the environmental problems and impacts on the flow of benefits. Hence, circular economic approach as pioneering to renovate the current linear system into circular one through 3R's strategy (reduce, reuse, and recycle) in the process of production, distribution, and consumption of ecosystem goods and services. This research paper explains about the application of circular economic approach in conservation management by assessing economic valuation of Kundapura mangrove's specific services. This approach is expected to finally result in aiding decision‐making process to limit the quantity of polluting residuals and control the degradation activities thereby sustain the mangroves in good health. Further the regeneration and expansion of mangrove extent would improve the mangrove‐dependent fishery, promote sustainable tourism, and maximize the coastal protection and economic benefits in this region. This will go a long way in sustaining the health of the otherwise fragile mangrove ecosystem of Kundapura coastal stretch, which is under the category of Critically Vulnerable Coastal Areas (CCVAs), identified under CRZ of India.

Models help set ecosystem service baselines for restoration assessment.

Coastal suburban watersheds are under heavy pressure from human activity. This pressure has yielded an extensive effort to protect, mitigate, and restore watershed ecosystem services. Assessment of restoration investments would be greatly improved by a standard approach for estimating change in ecosystem service production combined with a well-defined baseline for assessment of restoration effects. Here we take a model-based approach to both objectives by applying two established ecosystem service models in a representative coastal watershed. This watershed has undergone extensive suburbanization resulting in a loss of ecosystem services, which has resulted in heavy restoration investments. We used models to estimate loss of the ecosystem services; clean air, clean water, stable climate, and water storage resulting from suburbanization. We then applied these model-based estimates as a baseline for assessment of restoration focusing on the appropriate restoration scale and considering downstream watershed impacts. The results suggest that losses of ecosystem services, such as flood water storage, from suburbanization have been extensive since 2001, but a comparison of restoration value suggests that restoration has been effective in recouping ecosystem services in some but not all local regions suggesting there are trade-offs to be made in these efforts. These benefits were most evident for the services of clean water and water storage. Models can inform decisions by clarifying what has been lost and estimating what can be regained through restoration action. The former sets a baseline for the latter and allows for a functional equivalency approach to assessment.

Timing and duration of drought modulate tree growth response in pure and mixed stands of Scots pine and Norway spruce

Abstract Climate change is increasing the severity and frequency of droughts around the globe, leading to tree mortality that reduces production and provision of other ecosystem services. Recent studies show that growth of mixed stands may be more resilient to drought than pure stands. The two most economically important and widely distributed tree species in Europe are Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), but little is known about their susceptibility to drought when coexist. This paper analyses the resilience (resistance, recovery rate and recovery time) at individual‐tree level using a network of tree‐ring collections from 22 sites along a climatic gradient from central Europe to Scandinavia. We aimed to identify differences in growth following drought between the two species and between mixed and pure stands, and how environmental variables (climate, topography and site location) and tree characteristics influence them. We found that both the timing and duration of drought drive the different responses between species and compositions. Norway spruce showed higher vulnerability to summer drought, with both lower resistance and a longer recovery time than Scots pine. Mixtures provided higher drought resistance for both species compared to pure stands, but the benefit decreases with the duration of the drought. Especially climate sensitive and old trees in climatically marginal sites were more affected by drought stress. Synthesis. Promoting Scots pine and mixed forests is a promising strategy for adapting European forests to climate change. However, if future droughts become longer, the advantage of mixed stands could disappear which would be especially negative for Norway spruce.

La montagna che produce: nuove immagini territoriali per le terre alte

For a long time, European mountain areas have provided resources according to their environmental specificities. Mines and forests, meadows, pastures and streams have allowed the export of minerals and timber, agricultural and manufacturing products as well as handcrafts to the surrounding plains. Production has brought income to local communities while modifying the landscape. During the 20th century, many mountain areas had to deal with more competitive surrounding areas. More recently, mountains have been rediscovered mainly as places of production of environmental, touristic and cultural ecosystem services. Looking at the mountain as a place of production allows us to gain a new understanding of its territories, to look at them with an unprecedented gaze. In the last two decades, in fact, the images and analyses built around the mountain have clustered around two opposing poles, from tourism to depopulation and abandonment. Society, governments and the world of research have recently attributed promising and positive values to the mountain territories of production; this could have serious repercussions on their destiny. The present essay questions the origins and meaning of this new interest and deals with the theme of production to highlight changes in approaches and points of view. In mountain areas, in fact, the issue of production raises questions, highlights critical issues, imposes new interpretative categories, brings out perspectives for the definition of a structuring relationship between soil design and sustainable ways of transforming places.

Grassland afforestation

The establishment of tree plantations on native grasslands is expanding in Argentina and Uruguay, prometed by public incentives and, likely, by an emerging market of carbon sequestration. We assessed how this transformation affects the production of ecosystem goods and services, synthesizing preexisting and original information on their influence on biomass production, water dynamics, and nutrient cycling. Field and satellite measurements show that, compared to grasslands, tree plantations in Uruguay, Entre Ríos, and Corrientes had higher primary productivity. This productivity increase was accompanied by higher evapotranspiration rates and a lower water yield, responsible of halving stream flow in afforested watersheds in Córdoba and Uruguay, in agreement with observations on 26 afforested grasslands around the world. In Buenos Aires, where phreatic water is close to the surface, trees used groundwater increasing the salinity of deep soil and the water table. Most of the tree plantations in the region acidified soils and in some cases stream water, mainly as a result of their high calcium consumption. It is urgent to generate information about other impacts of tree plantations such as changes in fire dynamics or invasive species. An integrative understanding of the influence of tree plantations on the production of goods and services will help to development new forestry systems and policies that are more sustainable and useful for society.

Spatial and Temporal Changes in Crop Species Production Diversity in Mexico (1980–2020)

Crop species diversity is a key component of agroecosystem resilience, food system stability, ecosystem services production, and sustainable development. Despite its importance, quantitative understanding of crop species diversity is often lacking. This study assesses changes in crop species production diversity in Mexico from 1980 to 2020 at state, regional, and national levels. Measures of crop species richness and effective diversity (alpha, beta, gamma) were derived from government production data on 304 species, each stratified into rainfed and irrigated components. Time series of these components reveal three main findings: (1) diversity generally increased during the study period, especially among fruits, vegetables, spices and herbs, and ornamental crops; (2) the diversity of irrigated crops was about two times higher than the diversity of rainfed crops, despite comprising a small fraction of the total cultivated area; and (3) the diversity of irrigated crops increased dramatically after implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994—though most increases occurred in dry northern regions where production depended on unsustainable irrigation. In sum, findings show that while crop diversity can contribute to numerous forms of sustainability, not all diversification processes derive from agroecologically-based, sustainable forms of intensification. In Mexico, crop species diversification was associated with a post-1994 boom in produce exports to the United States and the unsustainable use of scarce water resources at home. Such context-specific understanding is crucial for determining whether crop diversification, in all its forms, ultimately leads to sustainable outcomes.

Demand for Ecosystem Services Drive Large-Scale Shifts in Land-Use in Tropical Mountainous Watersheds Prone to Landslides

An increasing frequency of extreme atmospheric events is challenging our basic knowledge about the resilience mechanisms that mediate the response of small mountainous watersheds (SMW) to landslides, including production of water-derived ecosystem services (WES). We hypothesized that the demand for WES increases the connectivity between lowland and upland regions, and decreases the heterogeneity of SMW. Focusing on four watersheds in the Central Andes of Colombia and combining “site-specific knowledge”, historic land cover maps (1970s and 1980s), and open, analysis-ready remotely sensed data (GLAD Landsat ARD; 1990–2000), we addressed three questions. Over roughly 120 years, the site-specific data revealed an increasing demand for diverse WES, as well as variation among the watersheds in the supply of WES. At watershed-scales, variation in the water balances—a surrogate for water-derived ES flows—exhibited complex relationships with forest cover. Fractional forest cover (pi) and forest aggregation (AIi) varied between the historic and current data sets, but in general showed non-linear relationships with elevation and slope. In the current data set (1990–2000), differences in the number of significant, linear models explaining variation in pi with time, suggest that slope may play a more important role than elevation in land cover change. We found ample evidence for a combined effect of slope and elevation on the two land cover metrics, which would be consistent with strategies directed to mitigate site-specific landslide-associated risks. Overall, our work shows strong feedbacks between lowland and upland areas, raising questions about the sustainable production of WES.

Fostering the use of soil invertebrate traits to restore ecosystem functioning

Ecological engineering of degraded ecosystems often manipulates plants, with positive outcomes for their restoration or ecosystem services production. The importance of soil biota for successional plant communities has prompted consideration of direct inoculation (active) or attraction (passive) of soil organisms as a relevant restoration strategy. However, few attempts have manipulated soil invertebrates as part of nature based solutions for ecosystem restoration, despite their major role in many soil ecological processes and in plant-soil feedback processes. In addition, while ecological restoration and ecological engineering approaches successfully incorporate plant traits, soil invertebrate traits remain underused. Exploiting the functional diversity of soil communities by adopting a trait-based approach could enhance restoration of soil chemical, biological and physical properties. Here, we conduct a narrative review and identify a set of soil invertebrate functional traits with great potential in ecosystem restoration. We focus on traits related to four main ecological functions that are often at the core of restoration plans: nutrient cycling and carbon cycling, pollutant detoxification, soil structure arrangement, and biological control agent by prey/pest regulation. This paper further proposes guidelines for stakeholders that need to be addressed to successfully integrate soil organism traits into ecological engineering. Finally, we highlight main knowledge gaps and limitations currently impeding the use of soil invertebrate traits in ecological engineering, and identify avenues for future research. We especially bring out (i) that few studies still use soil invertebrates in restoration, so even fewer are based on traits, (ii) a lack of data about soil invertebrate species role in ecosystems, (iii) a lack of data about attributes from specific traits and groups in existing soil functional trait databases, (iv) the complex relationships between functions and traits and (v) that future studies are needed to demonstrate the benefits of such trait-based approaches compared to approaches relying on emblematic species.

An innovative approach to combine solar photovoltaic gardens with agricultural production and ecosystem services

Biodiversity and crop productivity are compromised by the ongoing worldwide decline of pollinator insects primarily driven by the narrow specialization of modern agricultural industry, dominated by monocultures and characterized by intensive herbicide and pesticide inputs. This approach has the double drawback of indiscriminately killing both invasive and beneficial insects while pauperizing the landscape limiting the areas of natural vegetation that normally provide habitat for pollinators. Here, an approach to develop green infrastructures (GI) is proposed (Ground Photovoltaic farms, GPv) to synergistically address ecological emergencies and socio-economic needs. Mainly, we focused on Nature-based Solutions (NbS) to foster pollination as a priority ecosystem service and medicinal herb production as a co-benefit, creating a shared value in the landscape. The results suggest that the replacement of ruderal herbaceous vegetation with selected autochthonous cultivated species in the area of GPv farms could increase land revenues by simultaneously improving the pollination ecological network and agricultural activities. The economic analysis of the proposed solutions indicates that the annual return rate of the initial investment for GPv farms-to-GI conversion is between 9 and 43%, with potential payback in three years. Hence, GI could become an ecological business model, capable of improving ecosystem services in the landscape, both private and public benefits. However, a transdisciplinary approach is important to share knowledge across the different stakeholders and bridge the information gaps typical of a sectoral perspective, creating a holistic vision of the involved professional skills and experiences. Its proper implementation requires the joint effort of all economic stakeholders together with technical and scientific experts to promote multifunctional land-use in GPv farms.

Oyster reef restoration facilitates the recovery of macroinvertebrate abundance, diversity, and composition in estuarine communities

Historic declines in oyster populations have resulted in diminished production of ecosystem services and habitat function in many estuaries. Due to the important role of oysters in ecosystem function, scientists and resource managers have employed oyster reef restoration to mitigate declines, recover essential ecosystem services, and better habitat function. Yet, there are knowledge gaps regarding the impact of restoration efforts on ecologically valuable mid-trophic level organisms inhabiting these systems. To address this knowledge gap, here we quantify macroinvertebrate species abundance, community diversity, and composition on experimental restored oyster reefs before and after restoration, and from live (positive control) and dead (negative control) reefs in the Indian River Lagoon, Florida. Species diversity and composition on restored reefs shifted towards states similar to live (positive control) reefs within 12 months of restoration. Recovery of species abundance occurred within 18 months of restoration. The results presented herein quantify the effect of restoration on resident macroinvertebrates and provide timelines of recovery for each attribute of these communities. Further, this study presents an actionable and transferable framework for identifying effective single-species metrics of restoration success across ecosystems. The application of this framework will provide managers and researchers with tools to improve the efficiency and efficacy of post-restoration monitoring. By doing so, this study contributes significantly to the improvement of broader restoration practices in an era of unprecedented habitat loss.