Ecosystem Service Indicators Research Articles

Evaluating Ecosystem Services Incorporation in River Policy: A Multidimensional Framework Applied to China's River Chief System

ABSTRACTThis study develops a comprehensive evaluation framework to assess the incorporation of river ecosystem services (ESs) into policy content, focusing on China's River Chief System (RCS) policy. The framework introduces a quantitative tool that bridges the gap between policy formulation evaluation and policy effect evaluation by integrating a hierarchical indicator system, reference values, and a method for quantifying ES incorporation. Key findings from 32 province‐level RCS policy documents revealed selective incorporation of certain ES indicators, significant mismatches between policy focus and the typical structure of river ESs, and notable regional disparities. Provisioning services (i.e., water supply) and regulating services (i.e., pollution mitigation) are prioritized, while critical regulating services (e.g., flood mitigation and habitat maintenance) and cultural services (e.g., education and science) are underrepresented. Stakeholder and relationship indicators are limited, primarily focusing on managers and spatial relationships, while the value of river ESs is largely ignored. Policy optimization should emphasize expanding the coverage of ESs, incorporating broader stakeholder involvement, and integrating financial incentives. Drawing on international river policies, policymakers could create a more flexible and adaptive river governance structure. While the study offers a quantitative framework for policy evaluation, it acknowledges limitations, including reliance on textual data and potential biases in the reference values. Future research should include stakeholder perspectives and dynamically adjust reference values as new data become available.

Humans versus models: a comparative assessment of ecosystem services models and stakeholders’ perceptions

Mapping the production of Ecosystem Services (ES) is imperative for sustainable ecosystem management. Likewise, incorporating expert knowledge enhances ES research. Here, we calculate eight multi-temporal ES indicators for mainland Portugal using a spatial modelling approach. These indicators are then integrated into the novel ASEBIO index—Assessment of Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity—which depicts a combined ES potential based on CORINE Land Cover, using a multi-criteria evaluation method with weights defined by stakeholders through an Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). Outputs from the modelling show how ES have changed in Portugal in relation to land use changes, including trade-offs between 1990 and 2018. The composed ASEBIO index is compared against the stakeholders’ valuation of ES potential for the year 2018. The results reveal a significant mismatch between the ES potential perceived by stakeholders and the models, with stakeholder estimates being 32.8% higher on average. All the selected ES were overestimated by the stakeholders. Drought regulation and erosion prevention have the highest contrasts, while water purification, food production and recreation are the most closely aligned among both approaches. Providing the first national overview about the status of multiple ES over a 28 year-period, our findings highlight potential disparities between data-driven and stakeholder-based evaluations. Therefore, we suggest the need for integrative strategies that consider scientific models with expert knowledge for more effective ES assessments and land-use planning. This approach could help bridge the gap between data-driven models and human perspectives, resulting in more balanced and inclusive decision-making.

Indicators of Cultural Ecosystem Services for Peri-Urban Agricultural and Natural Areas at an Intermediate Scale: A Case Study of Arequipa, Peru

The evaluation of management in peri-urban agricultural and natural areas (PANAs) constitutes a complex topic, particularly when considering its scale in cities where landscape planning is a priority. Therefore, indicators are required to assess the non-material well-being, biodiversity, and quality of life of society, which are criteria of cultural ecosystem services (CESs). This research develops identification and subclassification CESs and tangible and intangible indicators that facilitate the management of the PANA landscape, using the city of Arequipa as a case study—a dynamic cultural city with a declared cultural heritage, in turn located in an artificial oasis in the Atacama Desert. Therefore, the results will enable the selection of indicators that are practically applicable to planning instruments, serving as support systems for decision-making regarding interventions in PANAs. The methodology began with a systematic and meta-analytic (PRISMA) review, identifying 25 articles containing 230 indicators across 19 subclassifications. Using the Multiscale Indicators Framework (MSIF), the literature was integrated with a participatory workshop to validate these findings. The level of impact was assessed for 115 indicators across 13 subclassifications, applying criteria such as diversity, sustainable management, quality of life, and scalability—factors necessary to comply with urban sustainability policies.

Evaluating soil quality and carbon storage in Western Ghats Forests, Karnataka, India, for sustainable forest management.

Monitoring soil quality index (SQI) and soil organic carbon (SOC) stock status of the Western Ghats (WG) forests in India is crucial for providing vital ecosystem services alongside sustainable forest management practices. However, comprehensive profile data on SQI and SOC stock across different forest types under WG forests are limited. The study evaluated SQI and SOC stock under three forest types, i.e. tropical wet evergreen (TWE), tropical semi-evergreen (TSE), and tropical moist deciduous (TMD) across WG in Karnataka. SQI was assessed using principal component analysis with two indexing approaches and scoring methodologies, with weightage indexing through nonlinear scoring functions (NLSF) showing superiority over other methodologies. TMD forests exhibited the highest SQI, followed by TWE and TSE, while the lowest was observed in Rippon Pet RF (0.36 surface, 0.28 control section), primarily due to limitations in organic carbon and clay content. SOC stock mirrored SQI trends (TMD > TWE > TSE), with the highest values in Kollegal RF (339.3 MG ha-1) and lowest in Rippon Pet RF (102.5 MG ha-1). Although SOC and SQI were established to be ideal indicators for dynamic ecosystem services (ESs), high OC content in surface soils of Poomale NF induces pedogenic acidification and Al toxicities, indicating potential forest soil degradation. Significant correlation with control section SQI and SOC (p < 0.05) emphasises monitoring subsurface soil status to identify soil degradation, sustainable forestry practices, and complex ESs in forest systems.

Nature's Contributions to People: Systematic Mapping of Studies and Inventory of Methodologies and Indicators for Quantifying Hydrological Ecosystem Services

Objective: Evaluate the estimation of nature's contributions to people - NCP (i.e. ecosystem services - ES) through bibliographic mapping and systematization of methodologies, tools and indicators of hydrological ecosystem services (HES). Theoretical Framework: Predatory exploitation of ecosystems is causing increasingly severe impacts on humanity. Accelerated by population growth, changes in land use and the decoupling of measures recommended by science from those adopted by nations, climate change is triggering alterations in the global hydrological cycle. Adaptation strategies depend on the production of information on the supply and flow of HES. Method: Consultation of the Web of Science, Scopus and Science Direct databases, and systematic bibliographic mapping (2014-2024), with bibliometric analysis in the VOSviewer software, and recording of information on NCP, ES, metrics, methodologies for quantifying HES and respective indicators. Results and Discussion: A total of 743 abstracts were analyzed and 196 articles were selected. Of these, 103 estimated HES, with a predominance of studies on a river basin scale. Seventy-nine indicators were mapped, mostly biophysical, associated with water flow regulation and water quality. China was the most represented country in terms of mapped area. The most widely used models were InVEST and SWAT. Research Implications: Systematization of information for users interested in mapping and quantifying HES, with an indication of established aspects, methods, and knowledge gaps. Originality/Value: Mapping based on HES indicators, aggregation of studies under different ES frameworks and provision of a dynamic results panel, with spatialization of studies and various data filtering possibilities.

Optimizing afforestation and reforestation strategies to enhance ecosystem services in critically degraded regions

Human activity has caused massive forest ecosystem damage, threatening the global environmental balance. Afforestation and reforestation are crucial strategies for the restoration of forest ecosystem functions. This study was conducted on Belitung Island, Indonesia, which has experienced forest degradation due to mining activity and is currently undergoing forest restoration efforts. This study aimed to identify priority areas for afforestation and reforestation using an innovative approach that integrates multi-criteria analysis (MCA) and machine-learning techniques based on ecosystem service (ES) indicators, wildfire susceptibility, and environmental pressure. This study is the first to combine long-term remote sensing data with machine learning to develop priority scenarios for afforestation and reforestation. Results show that low-priority afforestation areas cover 24,479.66 ha (20.45 %), medium-priority areas 58,703.30 ha (49.04 %), and high-priority areas 36,521.98 ha (30.51 %). For reforestation, low-priority areas cover 23,123.45 ha (30.45 %), medium-priority areas 38,197.36 ha (50.3 %), and high-priority areas 14,618.27 ha (19.25 %). This study is expected to serve as a reference for sustainable forest ecosystem restoration efforts in various regions by leveraging ES approaches and environmental conditions using remote-sensing technology.

How meeting the ten pedometrics challenges can deliver healthy‐soil contributions to SDG‐related ecosystem services

AbstractWhen considering ecosystem services in line with relevant Sustainable Development Goals, the proposed logical sequence of the ten pedometric challenges can form a framework defining effective contributions by the soil science discipline to the sustainability challenge facing society. Defining relatively simple, but scientifically sound, indicators and thresholds for ecosystem services can be the basis for a transparent regulatory system justifying payment for ecosystem services provided to society. The current serious lack of trust between the policy and farming arenas can and should be restored by scientists and farmers working jointly in Living Labs, aiming to become Lighthouses, to be part of Communites of Practice (CoP). A Living Lab case study is reviewed showing that much know‐how is already available to define indicators and innovative cutting‐edge methodology adds attractive new opportunities for rapid and relatively cheap characterizations. Field work remains essential and just routinely applying standard techniques fed by existing databases may lead to poor results. Research on indicator‐thresholds has a high priority. In the case study, the important soil fertility indicator was based on the current procedure of field sampling and fertilization recommendations by specialized agencies, that is already followed by 85% of farmers. This could be expanded by including indicators for other ecosystem services thereby contributing substantially to the societal sustainability debate. Soil health plays a key role when contributing to all ecosystem services. Showing this with specific examples in a Living Lab/Lighthouse and CoP context is the best way to promote the profession which is needed to justify current major funding. Not only cutting‐edge research can contribute to defining indicators and thresholds. A hundred years of research has produced many valuable insights and methodologies that can be applied as well. The: ‘better’ can be the enemy of the: ‘good’. The sustainable development challenge is highly urgent: there is no time to lose.

Ecosystem services in mountain pastures: A complex network of site conditions, climate and management

Mountain pastures offer a multitude of ecosystem services (ES) such as fodder for ruminants, habitat for pollinators, climate change mitigation, aesthetic landscape for recreation, and biodiversity conservation. We aimed at analysing to which extend these ES are influenced by small-scale gradients of climate, site conditions and management – and to disentangle relationships among ES and the factors influencing them. Therefore, we quantified ES on six mountain summer farms in two contrasting regions in Switzerland: the Northern Alpine Foothills (lower elevation, higher precipitation, calcareous bedrock) and the Eastern Central Alps (higher elevation, lower precipitation, silicious bedrock). We measured six ES indicators (forage quantity, forage quality, carbon storage, colour abundance, resources for pollinators, plant diversity) and related them to explanatory factors of climate (temperature and precipitation), site conditions (soil fertility, soil acidity, terrain slope) and management (local grazing intensity, remoteness) in 66 study plots, i.e., 11 per farm. A holistic picture of the complex relationships among these factors was drawn by various statistical approaches: allometric line fitting, variance partitioning, and structural equations modelling. We found a huge heterogeneity of ES indicators and explanatory factors on each farm: the variability within farms was even higher than between regions. Variance partitioning and structural equations modelling demonstrated strongest influence of climate and site conditions and revealed trade-offs among ES indicators: High forage quantity and quality were associated with low plant diversity and grassland aesthetics, whereas diversity, aesthetics and pollinator resources were positively correlated with each other. ES indicators were explained by a range of climatic and topographic factors: High precipitation reduced plant diversity, whereas temperature increased forage quantity and quality; slope reduced soil fertility, forage quantity, forage quality and carbon storage; soil fertility in turn increased forage quantity; the farther away a pasture was from the main farm building, the lower was the forage quantity and the higher the plant diversity. Although allometric relations among local grazing intensity and ES indicators were strong, the direct influence of the management factors measured on ES was surprisingly small: Cattle preferred areas of high forage quantity and quality, and carbon storage was higher in these areas. On the other hand, places less visited by cattle offered more pollinator resources, and showed higher aesthetics and plant diversity. Trade-offs among ES prevent the realisation of all ES at the same place, but heterogeneity of mountain pastures allows to realise a broad bundle of contrasting ES on each individual summer farm.

Consistency of landscape compositional effects on microclimate, arthropods and plant performance across different years and regions

ContextReinforcement of agrobiodiversity in peri-urban areas requires a landscape lens. Relationships between land use composition and indicators of ecosystem services can depend on weather conditions and differ between regions.ObjectivesIn this study we present new empirical data on relationships between landscape composition and indicators of regulating and provisioning agroecosystem services. Furthermore, we check if these data are consistent between two different ecoregions and different years.MethodsWe apply an innovative methodology in a research landscape in the province of Antwerp (Flanders, Belgium) in 2021 with 1 m²-garden as phytometers along a landscape compositional gradient. Landscape composition at different scales is used as explanatory variable for microclimate variation, arthropod activity, leaf herbivory and crop yield in the 1 m²-gardens. Results are compared to an identical experiment in another ecoregion in East Flanders in 2018, 2019.ResultsWe found that the proportion of built-up areas is negatively related to local agroecosystem functioning. High-value herbaceous vegetation (e.g. extensive grasslands) promotes the activity of predators and high green vegetation buffers soil moisture and temperature variation, during dry and warm periods. Comparison between cases indicates that there is more consistency in the response of predatory invertebrates to the landscape composition than in the response of pollinators. The buffering effect of high green vegetation in the landscape increases when temperature and drought extremes occur.ConclusionsThe extent of high green vegetation can be enhanced at landscape level to maximise their ability to buffer extreme weather conditions. In peri-urban areas we should avoid further urban sprawl into the rural matrix and promote high-value herbaceous vegetation.

Spatiotemporal Evolution and Drivers of Carbon Storage from a Sustainable Development Perspective: A Case Study of the Region along the Middle and Lower Yellow River, China

Carbon storage (C-storage) is a critical indicator of ecosystem services, and it plays a vital role in maintaining ecological balance and driving sustainability. Its assessment provides essential insights for enhancing environmental protection, optimizing land use, and formulating policies that support long-term ecological and economic sustainability. Previous research on C-storage in the Yellow River Basin has mainly concentrated on the spatiotemporal fluctuations of C-storage and the investigation of natural influencing factors. However, research combining human activity factors to explore the influences on C-storage is limited. In this paper, based on the assessment of the spatiotemporal evolution of C-storage in the region along the Middle and Lower Yellow River (MLYR), the influences of anthropogenic and natural factors on C-storage were explored from the perspective of sustainable development. The findings reflected the relationship between socio-economic activities and the ecological environment from a sustainable development perspective, providing important scientific evidence for the formulation of sustainability policies in the region. We noticed the proportion of arable land was the highest, reaching 40%. The increase of construction land because of the fast urbanization mainly came from arable land and grassland. During the past 15 years, the cumulative loss of C-storage was 71.17 × 106 t. The high-value of C-storage was primarily situated in hilly areas, and the area of C-storage hotspots was shrinking. The aggregation effect of low-value C-storage was strengthening, while that of high-value C-storage was weakening. The dominant factors (q &gt; 0.5) influencing the spatiotemporal variation of C-storage in the region along the Middle Yellow River (MYR) were temperature and precipitation, while the primary factor in the region along the Lower Yellow River (LYR) was temperature. Overall, meteorological factors were the main determinants across the entire study area. Additionally, compared to the MYR, anthropogenic factors had a smaller impact on the spatiotemporal evolution of C-storage in the LYR, but their influence has been increasing over time.

How is human well-being related to ecosystem services at town and village scales? A case study from the Yangtze River Delta, China

ContextThe relationships between ecosystem services (ES) and human well-being (HWB) have been found to be influenced by geographic locations and socioeconomic development, and vary from local to global scales. However, there is a lack of comparative analyses at fine administrative scales such as town and village scales.ObjectiveThis study took the core region of the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) of China as the study area to examine the spatial characteristics of the values of ES and the subjective satisfaction scores of HWB and then compare their relationships at the town and village scales.MethodsThe values of 9 ES indicators were quantified using the ecosystem service equivalent factor method, and the subjective satisfaction scores of 11 HWB indicators were investigated using the questionnaire survey. The ES-HWB relationships between 9 ES and 11 HWB measures in the study area were investigated using Spearman's correlation analysis.ResultsThe value of ES per unit area in the study area in 2020 was about 15,202.90 USD/ha, nearly three times the average level in China, but the per capita value was relatively low, at 322.11 USD/person. The satisfaction score of HWB was relatively high, especially for the dimensions of social relations (4.46), health (4.26), and safety (4.22), based on a 5-point Likert scale. As spatial scales decreased from town to village scales and thematic scales increased from secondary to primary indicators, the strength of the ES-HWB correlations diminished and their direction changed as well. According to secondary indicators, most of the ES-HWB relationships were positive at the town scale but became negative or nonexistent at the village scale (e.g. the Spearman correlation coefficient between the value of raw material supply and the satisfaction score of leisure and entertainment shifted from 0.9 at the town scale to -0.51 at the village scale).ConclusionsThe correlation strength and direction of the ES-HWB relationships still changed with spatial and thematic scales at the town and village scales. Thus, better understanding the relationships requires studies at multiple and broader scales and calls for caution when using the aggregating indicators, because they can also lead to different ES-HWB relationships.

DAPSI(W)R(M) put into practice for a nature-based solution: Framework applied to the coastbusters approach

Nature-based Solutions (NbS) can be applied to alleviate negative human impacts on ecosystems and promote the general health or well-being of the environment. Human-induced activities, including installation of NbS, are governed by legislative requirements (e.g. Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA)), especially when such activities occur in Marine Protected Areas (MPA's). A correct and thorough description of the legislative framework governing the application and development of NbS is therefore essential. The Drivers-Activities-Pressures-State change-Impacts (on human Welfare)-Responses (using Measures) or DAPSI(W)R(M) framework is valuable when environmental assessment procedures include a NbS, as well as when policy and industry require guidance for the practical application of a NbS concept. In this study, we applied the DAPSI(W)R(M) framework to the Coastbusters approach, in which mussel beds (Mytilus edulis) and tubeworm aggregations (Lanice conchilega) are installed in the Belgian part of the North Sea with the aim of improving coastal resilience and maritime infrastructure works. Within the context of the Coastbusters approach, the various elements of the DAPSI(W)R(M) framework were elucidated. Coastal defense is a driver, with activities including the integration of coastal infrastructure and aquaculture practices. Pressures related to these activities on benthic habitats were described using the MarESA sensitivity approach. State change assessments were performed based on the various marine regulations (e.g. Marine Strategy Framework Directive, Habitat Directive, Water Framework Directive) which together outline a precise set of criteria and indicators designed to assess the sustainability and health of ecosystems. The present study provides a detailed framework for the environmental evaluation of seaward NbS, from state changes to impacts on human welfare. Three quantitative estimations of ecosystem service indicators (coastal protection, carbon retention and water quality (N) regulation) were used, with the indicators quantified by in-situ measurements and data from literature. Subsequently, the 10-tenets approach for taking measures (e.g. use of biodegradable material, local species, etc.) was used to develop responses that facilitate the optimal implementation of NbS. The approach outlined in this study can be used as a guide for stakeholders as they move through the environmental evaluation processes that are required for successful development of a seaward NbS. Our results underscore the importance of a favorable institutional environment for NbS and suggest that public acceptance and stakeholder involvement play a crucial role in successful implementation. This study contributes to the understanding and operationalization of Nature-based Solutions in coastal management.

Evaluation of Erosion Rates as Indicators of Ecosystem Services in Bali's Subak Rice Fields: Insights from Tabanan Regency, Indonesia

Evaluation of Erosion Rates as Indicators of Ecosystem Services in Bali's Subak Rice Fields: Insights from Tabanan Regency, Indonesia

Assessment and Monitoring of Local Climate Regulation in Cities by Green Infrastructure—A National Ecosystem Service Indicator for Germany

In densely built-up urban areas, green spaces such as gardens, parks, forests and water bodies can greatly enhance the quality of life for local residents and promote human health. These areas mitigate heat stress and the urban heat island effect to create a balanced local climate. To quantify the ecosystem service of “urban climate regulation” provided by urban green infrastructure, we developed a national indicator for specific measurement and monitoring. This indicator captures both the supply of climate-regulating services by urban green spaces and the demand for this service from the residential population. Using nationwide geodata, a cooling capacity value can be calculated that reflects the tree canopy, soil cover, sizes of green area and site characteristics. This cooling capacity value is then related to the affected residential population in the neighbourhood. Our analysis indicates that 76% of the population in the 165 case cities in Germany enjoy high or very high cooling capacities in their immediate living environment. In 37 cities, over 85% of the population benefits from good or very good cooling capacity provided by green space. The proposed indicator enables a comparison of the cooling service of urban green infrastructure and offers a sound basis for spatial planning and decision-making in urban areas.

Effects of management practices on the ecosystem-service multifunctionality of temperate grasslands

Human wellbeing depends on ecosystem services, highlighting the need for improving the ecosystem-service multifunctionality of food and feed production systems. We study Swiss agricultural grasslands to assess how employing and combining three widespread aspects of grassland management and their interactions can enhance 22 plot-level ecosystem service indicators, as well as ecosystem-service multifunctionality. The three management aspects we assess are i) organic production system, ii) an eco-scheme prescribing extensive management (without fertilization), and iii) harvest type (pasture vs. meadow). While organic production system and interactions between the three management aspects play a minor role, the main effects of eco-scheme and harvest type considerably shape single services. Moreover, the eco-scheme ‘extensive management’ and the harvest type ‘pasture’ enhance plot-scale ecosystem-service multifunctionality, mostly through facilitating cultural services at the expense of provisioning services. These changes in ecosystem-service supply occur mainly via changes in land-use intensity, i.e., reduced fertilizer input and harvest frequency. In conclusion, diversifying grassland management where this is currently homogeneous across farms and landscapes depicts an important first step to improve landscape-scale multifunctionality for sustainable grassland systems. To meet societal ecosystem services demand, the three studied management aspects can be systematically combined to increase ecosystem services that are in short supply.

Upscaling of ecosystem service and biodiversity indicators from field to farm to inform agri-environmental decision- and policy-making

Ecosystem services and biodiversity are frequently measured by field-scale indicators. Yet, many important agricultural and economic drivers as well as agri-environmental policies operate at larger sales, to which field-scale indicators first need to be upscaled. Therefore, this perspective is focussed on upscaling approaches from field to farm or to landscape scale. To understand how ecosystem services and biodiversity are affected by farm-scale drivers and to inform future decision- and policy-making while exploiting existing data sources, these need to be upscaled and analysed at farm scale. However, how this is done best for different types of indicators for ecosystems services and biodiversity received little attention so far.In this work, we propose and discuss different options for upscaling ecosystem service and biodiversity indicators from field to farm scale. We base our novel conceptual work on a large body of literature and demonstrate that before deciding on an upscaling approach, different aspects of the indicators and the purpose of the assessment need to be considered. Our propositions start at the point where field-scale data is available for aggregation at farm scale. Such an aggregation needs to consider the relationship between ecosystem service supply and the benefit provided, i.e., the supply-benefit relationship, which describes how a change in supply affects the resulting benefit for farmers and/or society. We argue that this relationship can also be conceptualized for biodiversity, with benefit being the value of a field or farm for biodiversity conservation.Because benefit does often not continuously increase with supply, but can exhibit breaking points defined by thresholds in supply, the shape of the supply-benefit relationship varies among different ecosystem services and biodiversity components. For example, for upscaling biodiversity indicators, a conservation value needs to consider that conservation benefit might non-linearly change with supply, i.e., habitat quality and quantity, and becomes marginal below certain thresholds. Only when such potential thresholds are considered, a suitable upscaling approach can be chosen from the approaches that we present in this work. While some indicators can be upscaled using a simple area-weighted total or average, for others, thresholds in supply are of great relevance for determining the best upscaling approach. We conclude that upscaling indicators to the farm scale holds untapped potential to inform agri-environmental assessments and future policies. By presenting and discussing suitable approaches for different types of indicators, we hope to facilitate upscaling as a tool to support agri-environmental decision-making in the future.

Making explicit an Ecosystem Services indicator as a policy instrument

ABSTRACT Some policy-oriented concepts such as Ecosystem Services (ESS) remain widely utilized, despite obvious difficulties in operationalizing them. How does the concept persist? In a large EU Horizon 2020 project, researchers from different institutes worked together to develop an indicator of the environmental performance of agricultural practices, expressed in terms of ESS. Two observations of this project help to explain how ESS are progressively turned into a socially shared concept that may transform its environment and perpetuate itself. Firstly, the challenges of operationalizing ESS facilitated the formation of a group of researchers dedicated to the concept. As the project advanced, researchers progressively cut ties with the environmental sciences on which ESS are meant to be based. The interpretive flexibility of the ESS concept contributed to shaping the socially shared reality within which it was situated. Secondly, the legal obligations and procedures of the Horizon 2020 project were an essential factor for the constitutive strength of the ESS concept. As a straitjacket, the grant agreement ensured that the project maintained the researcher-indicator relationship. Thus, researchers were persistently oriented towards developing and expanding the ESS concept. This case illustrates how a research project can be formed and maintained around relatively ill-defined concepts in large consortia that are meant to produce policy-relevant science.

The Importance of Spatial Configuration When Restoring Intensive Production Landscapes for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Service Multifunctionality

Intensive production landscapes provide low levels of many ecosystem services and support limited biodiversity, so they require restoration to enhance their multifunctionality. International guidelines suggest that restoration should aim to establish natural woody vegetation cover across 30% of landscapes. Such restoration may be implemented in varied spatial configurations and complemented by additional land use changes from intensive to extensive semi-natural pastoral grasslands. To restore multifunctional landscapes, we need to understand the impacts of restoration spatial configuration and complementary grassland extensification, both in isolation and in combination. We used a virtual landscape simulation to systematically analyse the impacts of alternative restoration strategies on the provision of nine indicators of ecosystem services and biodiversity, and the overall multifunctionality of the landscapes. All restored landscapes achieved improvements in the performance of individual ecosystem services and multifunctionality compared to the baseline. The benefits of a given restored natural vegetation effort were increased by adding extensive grassland and modifying the spatial configuration of restoration. Randomly distributed patterns of restoration provided higher multifunctionality than restoration adjacent to existing natural areas or as large land blocks. The virtual landscape approach allowed systematic exploration of alternative restoration strategies, providing a mechanistic understanding that will inform restoration tailored to local priorities and conditions.

GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE OBJECTS ACCOUNTING OF URBOECOSYSTEMS: METHODOLOGICAL AND APPLIED ASPECTS

Introduction. The need to improve and develop methodical approaches to the accounting of green infrastructure objects is due to the lack of a unified system for determining the green infrastructure objects status of municipal territorial communities; the high dynamism of changes in the quality of the urbanized environment natural components and the economic conditions of society's existence; insufficiently regulated spatial development of cities and intra-system zoning and zoning of cities; lack of an ecosystem approach to the procedure of green infrastructure objects assessment and accounting.&#x0D; The purpose of the article: to justify the need in determine the green infrastructure objects status of urboecosystems, generalize methodical approaches to the accounting of such objects and develop proposals for their improvement.&#x0D; Results. The article substantiates the necessity of determining the green infrastructure objects status in municipal territorial communities, improving and developing methodical approaches to their accounting. The institutional prerequisites for the green infrastructure objects accounting of urban ecosystems, the tools of quantitative and quantitative-qualitative accounting of green spaces (interactive maps and plans, GIS accounting, mapping methods) that have gained practical application are considered. International approaches to the accounting of green infrastructure objects of urban ecosystems are analyzed. Current approaches that can be used for the identification of green infrastructure objects, their inventory, and certification have been identified, which allows us to assert the feasibility of considering green infrastructure as natural assets of the urban economy with all the prerequisites and consequences, namely, reflection in the General Development Plans, development strategies, plans and projects, accounting on the accounts of municipalities, distribution of responsibility for creation, operation, restoration, etc., which will be directly reflected in the green infrastructure management system. Proposals have been developed to fill in the criteria for quantitative and qualitative accounting of green spaces, which must be included in inventory lists, registers and passports of green infrastructure objects. As well as value indicators: book value, restoration value, improvement value, value increase, depreciation of green infrastructure objects. The experience of accounting implementation for the value indicators of green infrastructure objects ecosystem services is substantiated, since ecosystem capital is no less important than financial capital, and over time it will become the basis of the national wealth of the world countries.&#x0D; Conclusions. The green infrastructure formation is one of the strategic directions of the green course principles implementation in urban planning, and the accounting system of green infrastructure objects is an institutional environment element of the green cities functioning, information support for making management decisions that will contribute to the natural resources protection of urban ecosystems, and the quality improvement of the city`s residents living environment.

Does increasing forest age lead to greater trade-offs in ecosystem services? A study of a Robinia pseudoacacia artificial forest on the Loess Plateau, China

Artificial forest ecosystems offer various ecosystem services (ES) and help mitigate climate change effects. Trade-offs or synergies exist among ES in artificial forests. Although forest age influences ES and ecosystem processes, the long-term dynamics of trade-offs among ES in artificial forests and during vegetation restorations remain unclear, complicating vegetation and sustainable management. We studied a Robinia pseudoacacia plantation on the Loess Plateau, China, with a restoration time of 10–44 years. The entropy weight method was used to assess five ES (carbon sequestration, water conservation, soil conservation, understory plant diversity, and runoff and sediment reduction) and investigate how ES change with forest age. The root mean square deviation (RMSD) was used to quantify the trade-offs among ES, and redundancy analysis (RDA) analysis was used to identify the key factors influencing the ES and trade-offs. The results showed that (1) as forest age increased, ES scores initially increased and then decreased. The optimal range for ES values was observed during the middle-aged to mature stages of the forest. (2) Before reaching maturity, the planted forests primarily delivered services related to water conservation and runoff and sediment reduction. (3) In young forests, ES showed a synergistic relationship (RMSD = 0.06), whereas trade-offs occurred in forests at other ages. The largest trade-off was observed in middle-aged forests. (4) The ES pairs with the dominant trade-offs in planted forests differed at different forest age stages. The largest trade-off occurred between carbon sequestration and water conservation (RMSD = 0.28). RDA analysis showed that understory vegetation coverage had a positive correlation with all ES. The ES indicators that significantly (P < 0.001) affected the water‑carbon trade-off were tree carbon storage, soil organic carbon storage, soil total nitrogen, and soil total phosphorus. Thus, the water and carbon relationship must be balanced, and the key factors affecting ES trade-offs in forest management must be regulated to support ES multifunctionality.