Ecosystem-based Management Principles Research Articles

Ecosystem-based maritime spatial planning in practice? On the limitations of a legalistic planning tradition

The implementation of an ecosystem-based approach (EBA) is a core requirement of the EU Maritime Spatial Planning (MSP) directive. Ecosystem-based management presents a fundamental challenge to established practices concerning the planning of marine space and the governance of human activities at sea. Experience to date indicates considerable variation in the application of EBA across Europe. This variation can be attributed in part to differences in underlying planning traditions and cultures. In this article, we examine the specific case of EBA implementation in the current maritime spatial plan for Germany’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Following an interpretive analysis approach, we critically analyse how the scope and function of planning are understood in German MSP policy and practice. A narrow understanding of planning as solely concerned with the spatial coordination of competing claims on marine space is traced to a legalistic terrestrial planning tradition with a long history in German public administration. This narrow interpretation of the role of planning is found to fundamentally restrict the strategic, performative capacity of German MSP and, in particular, the potential for German MSP to apply ecosystem-based management principles. In conclusion, we contend that the implementation of an EBA requires a fundamental shift in planning paradigms and modes of governance. This empirical case provides a basis for critical reflection on the capacity of EU member states to implement an EBA as understood under the MSP directive and the mode of planning this might entail.

Coastal Groundwater-Dependent Ecosystems are Falling Through Policy Gaps.

Coastal groundwater-dependent ecosystems (GDEs), such as wetlands, estuaries and nearshore marine habitats,are biodiversity hotspots that provide valuable ecosystem services to society. However, coastal groundwater and associated ecosystems are under threat from groundwater exploitation and depletion, as well as climate change impacts from sea-level rise and extreme flood and drought events. Despite many well-intentioned policies focused on sustainable groundwater use and species protection, coastal GDEs are falling through gaps generated by siloed policies and as a result, are declining in extent and ecological function. This study summarized then examined policies related to the management of coastal groundwater and connected ecosystems in two key case study areas: Queensland (Australia) and California (USA). Despite both areas being regarded as having progressive groundwater policy, our analysis revealed three universal policy gaps, including (1) a lack of recognition of the underlying groundwater system, (2) fragmented policies and complex governance structures that limit coordination, and (3) inadequate guidance for coastal GDE management. Overall, our analysis revealed that coastal GDE conservation relied heavily on inclusion within protected areas or was motivated by species recovery, meaning supporting groundwater systems remained underprotected and outside the remit of conservation efforts. To close these gaps, we consider the adoption of ecosystem-based management principles to foster integrated governance between disparate agencies and consider management tools that bridge traditional conservation realms. Our findings advocate for comprehensive policy frameworks that holistically address the complexities of coastal GDEs across the land-sea continuum to foster their long-term sustainability and conservation.

Cross-Sector Ecosystem-Based Management Principles and Implementation Steps: The Nigerian Perspective

The complex economic, social, and environmental interactions in coastal areas require multi-sectoral approaches to understanding and designing effective management measures. The existing traditional management approaches fail to successfully identify economic, social, and ecological values and incorporate them into marine and estuarine ecosystems management. Therefore, there is a need for a holistic approach to help understand the socio-ecological system complexity and assist in policy and management of the marine and estuarine ecosystems. In recent years, Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM) has been relevant and implemented in many case studies of marine management and conservation of natural resources. However, there is a lack of consensus about its definition and key principles, which has affected its practical application in research. This article offers insight into EBM fundamental principles and steps to disaggregate ecosystems and resource management activities into a sequence of tangible levels of achievement and close the management gaps in the traditional approaches. We examined the principles and steps in EBM theoretical literature, covering a range of published sources across disciplines and continents. Based on the appearance frequency in literature, seven key EBM principles were identified and presented in this article. The steps to address the management gap in the traditional approaches and to implement EBM based on the identified principles were articulated further, especially in the Nigerian coastal management perspective. This article also examines the cases of implementation of EBM in the past and predicts the possible direction of EBM in the future if more attention is given to finding a center balance between its many principles and improving stability in its application in future research.

Waves of Change: Towards Ecosystem-Based Management to Climate Change Adaptation

Coastal climate change impacts challenge policy and decision makers to adopt more effective adaptation measures. The ecosystem-based management approach can shift adaptation towards a more holistic, integrated and sustainable path. However, as countries work on strategies to adapt to climate change, the questions of if and how such agendas consider and operationalise ecosystem-based management remains. As one of the world’s largest coastal countries, Brazil can have a prominent role in advancing the implementation of ecosystem-based management to coastal zones. By analysing two national Brazilian climate change adaptation institutions, this article evaluates and discusses the country’s advances in promoting climate change adaptations based on ecosystem-based management principles. Our findings show that, although Brazil has incorporated many ecosystem-based management principles to climate change adaptation at the national level, greater attention should be given to operationalizing principles related to acknowledging uncertainties, sustainability, democracy and knowledge production and application. The challenges to implement these principles mirror historical challenges of Brazilian coastal management policies, such as balancing development and conservation, promoting social participation and implementing effective social-ecological assessments and monitoring programs. Policy makers, scientists and communities should be aware of the need to strengthen ecosystem-based management principles in the current adaptation agenda in order to enhance its capacity to foster adaptation and just coastal sustainability.

Evaluating the role of market-based instruments in protecting marine ecosystem services in wild-caught fisheries

Over the last few decades there has been increasing concern about the sustainability of wild-caught fisheries. Ecosystem-based fisheries management and the use of market-based instruments represent promising approaches to promote sustainable fisheries. However, little is known about the extent to which market-based instruments align with the principles of ecosystem-based management. In this paper, we evaluate seven market-based instruments applied to wild-caught fisheries against an adapted version of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment typology to measure how well they address marine ecosystem services. Our results indicate that market-based instruments used in wild-caught fisheries do not explicitly address all marine ecosystem services in the text of their standards. While almost all address provisioning services, they generally do not address regulating, cultural, or supporting services. The explicit incorporation of ecosystem services into market-based instruments may offer an opportunity to better support the goals of ecosystem-based fisheries management and improve the sustainability of wild-caught fisheries. The historical focus on stock management, the breadth in the missions of implementing organizations, and the barriers to evaluating ecosystem services are likely contributors to the slow uptake of ecosystem service-oriented requirements.

Recognition of ecosystem-based management principles in key documents of the seabed mining regime: implications and further recommendations

Abstract New human uses on the marine environment, such as deep-sea mining (DSM), have necessitated the adoption of more holistic approaches such as ecosystem-based management (EBM) to secure sustainable development. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the rules, regulations, and procedures adopted by the International Seabed Authority (ISA) represent the main regulatory framework to govern DSM activities. This study aimed to examine whether UNCLOS and ISA documents include references to EBM principles, and if these references vary in documents through time. Following a literature review, 26 EBM principles were collated into 8 general categories, and their adherence to 5 key documents related to the DSM regime was analysed. Results demonstrated a trend in recognizing EBM principles in documents over time, especially in the Draft Regulations for Exploitation. However, the mere recognition of EBM principles in the regulatory framework does not guarantee that the approach will be clearly understood and appropriately incorporated by contractors throughout the process. For such, further clarification on the meaning of the Ecosystem Approach in the DSM context and building the capacity of the ISA Legal and Technical Commission are among the recommendations presented by this study.

Assessing the success of integrated shoreline management in the Tordera Delta, northeastern Spain

Coastal catchment zones have undergone enormous changes during recent decades that have compromised their resilience. As a consequence of largely fragmented coastal management frameworks in the delta region of the Tordera River, the beach of S’Abanell, located on the northern arm of the delta, was in a critically degraded condition by the end of 2006. To remedy this situation, the beach was artificially nourished with sand during the period 2007–2009. After nourishment, we observed a general trend of recovery of the width of the beach, in its northern and central parts, and the reappearance of a pattern of seasonal oscillation. This tendency was not observed in its southern part, near the river mouth, where the situation is still critical today. Tracing the decadal evolution of the problem, we strengthen the knowledge base by compiling a history of past human decisions responsible for the present situation. We promoted stakeholder engagement and participation aimed at reducing human pressures affecting the evolution of the beach and the loss of ecosystem services. The overall idea was to take the initial steps needed to shift the management of this coastal region towards ecosystem-based management principles. This research demonstrates that, under certain conditions, artificial nourishment can contribute to restoring beach health on a decadal scale.

Implementing Ecosystem-Based Management Principles in the Design of a Salmon Ocean Ecology Program

Two decades have passed since the initiation of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s research program aimed at advancing the understanding of estuary and ocean ecology of U.S. West Coast Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.). In this review and prospectus, we summarize key findings from this program and describe a plan for transitioning it to better support Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM). While we focus on salmon research, our approach applies to research design generally. Our path forward involves increasing understanding of ecosystem processes to improve the dependability of scenario testing under novel conditions. Over the past two decades, we developed a conceptual model for how climate, predators, prey, fisheries, and human activities influence salmon. Knowledge gaps we identified from our conceptual model include limited understanding of salmon distributions, behavior, maturation dynamics, and population dynamics, and salmon interactions with predators, competitors, and prey during winter. We consider emerging risks and vulnerabilities facing salmon and propose analysis frameworks for evaluating them. Increased predator populations, coupled with climate change, pose increasing threats to West Coast salmon and will require new strategies and actions to mitigate their negative impacts. We propose research to support the development of decision-support tools to evaluate tradeoffs associated with alternative management strategies and to inform an adaptive ecosystem management system to improve the resilience of salmon populations and salmon-dependent fisheries.

Environmental risks associated with trace elements in sediments from Cartagena Bay, an industrialized site at the Caribbean.

Cartagena Bay (CB) is an industrialized site in the Caribbean. The aim of this study was to evaluate contamination patterns by trace elements in sediments from CB. Sediment samples from twelve sites in CB, and three at the Grand Marsh of Santa Marta (GMSM), a reference site, were collected during dry and rainy seasons. Forty-four trace elements were evaluated employing ICP-MS, and mercury (Hg) was measured using a Hg analyzer. Most contaminated sites corresponded to stations related to repair and maintenance of ships, with high concentrations of Cr, Cu, As and Cd; as well as in areas where cargo transshipment centers and cruise ship terminals operate, which showed elevated levels of Ba. Stations receiving inputs from petrochemical and fertilizer plants displayed high content of Pb. At the station where an extinct chlor-alkali plant was located, a high total Hg level was found, highlighting its persistence. At least 70% of the samples presented Cr, Cu, and As concentrations that were ≥ Threshold Effect Level, < Probable Effect Level, ≥ Effects Range Low and < Effects Range Medium, suggesting adverse biological effects could occur occasionally. Potential Ecological risk values revealed that only Hg and Cd may generate deleterious effects to the aquatic life. However, with few exceptions, sediment samples from CB can be considered as moderately to heavily contaminated, as shown by the Igeo. In short, the principles of ecosystem-based management should be implemented along Cartagena Bay to guarantee safe levels of trace elements in sediments and a better quality of this estuary.

The role of a multi-jurisdictional organization in developing ecosystem-based management for fisheries in the Great Lakes basin

One of the mandated charges to the Great Lakes Fishery Commission is to facilitate the coordination of Great Lakes fishery management across jurisdictions. To do this, the Great Lakes Fishery Commission organized annual lake committee meetings among Great Lake fishery professionals since 1964. Our objective was to describe the role of the Great Lakes Fishery Commission in facilitating communication among fishery jurisdictions that fueled the development of ecosystem-based management principles in the basin. Meeting minutes from lake committee meetings and publications from the Great Lakes Fishery Commission-facilitated Salmonid Community of Oligotrophic Lakes workshop were coded based on 12 a priori ecosystem-based management principles. Meeting and workshop attendance data were analyzed through a bipartite network analysis (organizations connected to meetings) to determine if attendance at meetings were grouped, or clustered, within the fishery governance network. No significant clusters were detected, demonstrating that during 1970-75 fishery professionals in Great Lakes were cooperative in nature – in contrast to the prior half century where little cross-jurisdictional management was reported. Our analyses based on meeting attendance and coded discussions at the meetings demonstrated that three ecosystem-based management perspectives were discussed prior to 1972 (ecological integrity, hierarchical context, and humans embedded in nature) whereas discussions at lake committee meetings from 1972-74 and the Salmonid Community of Oligotrophic Lakes workshop influenced discussions about data collection, ecosystem boundaries, and hierarchical context at lake committee meetings in 1975. The Great Lakes Fishery Commission played a bridging role in facilitating communication among Great Lakes jurisdictions. These annual meetings were becoming a forum for professionals to collaboratively discuss fishery management issues, thereby advancing ecosystem-based management principles throughout the basin. Ultimately discussions at lake committee meetings helped contribute to the Great Lakes Fishery Commission and allied fishery management organizations agreeing to manage Great Lakes fisheries under ecosystem-based management through the ratification of A Joint Strategic Plan for Management of Great Lakes Fisheries in 1981.

Reconciling social justice and ecosystem-based management in the wake of a successful predator reintroduction

The reintroduction of a previously extirpated predator can engender conflict when the reintroduced species depletes customary fisheries to which indigenous communities have constitutionally protected rights. In the case of sea otter (Enhydra lutris) recovery on the west coast of North America, not only is Canada’s Species at Risk Act in conflict with Indigenous rights, but it also illuminates gaps in the principles of ecosystem-based management (EBM), such as equity and social justice. Broadly, we ask in this paper how EBM might be advanced if Indigenous communities were viewed as components of ecosystems having rights to a sustainable future equal to other components. Specifically, we explore evidence of sea otter management among precontact Northwest Coast societies and a contemporary co-managed system proposed by the Nuu-chah-nulth First Nations that would combine research with refinement of traditional hunting practices. We show that barriers persist through lack of knowledge of past controlled hunts, ignorance of recent experiences of successful community-based clam management, distrust of Indigenous capacity to self-manage or co-manage a hunt, and divergent values among actors.

An ocean of concepts: Why choosing between ecosystem-based management, ecosystem-based approach and ecosystem approach makes a difference

The need for management approaches based on ecosystem perspectives that thoroughly incorporate ecosystem considerations into marine planning has become increasingly urgent. In response, concepts such as ecosystem-based management (EBM), ecosystem-based approach (EBA) and ecosystem approach (EA) are increasingly being applied in marine/maritime spatial planning (MSP). The purpose of this article is to clarify potential differences and similarities between the three concepts and potential consequences of choosing one over the others. From a questionnaire and literature analysis, the findings showed vast disagreements on how the concepts are related, however the main perception is that the concepts overlap. Respondents agreed that a lack of clear definitions and understandings of the three concepts causes confusion and expect negative consequences for planning outcomes. Eleven principles for how the concepts are ideally performed were found, including; acknowledge interlinkages, see humans as a part of the ecosystem and consider cumulative impacts. While a complete overlap between EBM and EA principles were found, the weighting of each principle was different for each concept. Differences were also found in objectives of the concepts, where definitions of EBM were the only ones to include the objective of co-existence and definitions of EBA the only to include objectives of impact management and good environmental status. As this could have consequences in planning processes and thus in the outcomes, it is crucial that MSP practitioners and stakeholders are aware of different perceptions so that choosing between concepts does not lead to less ambitious or inadequate outcomes.

Implementing marine functional zoning in China

As one of the first countries to implement marine spatial planning, known in China as marine functional zoning (MFZ), China has developed MFZ into an integral part in its territorial spatial planning. Today, MFZ has become an important basis for the development, regulation and integrated management of marine space as well as an important tool for the management of its sea area, the protection of the marine environment, and development of its marine economy. This paper reviews China's MFZ system from a perspective of institutions, technologies and management requirements, and studies the resultant effects of MFZ in applications for sea-use projects, marine environmental monitoring and marine ecosystem protection by means of quantitative and comparative analysis. It is concluded that China's MFZ promotes the rational allocation of marine resources and the coordination of marine spaces for social and economic development based on its important role in sea-use project approval, marine environmental monitoring, and marine environmental protection. After three generations of evolution, it has formed a relatively mature classification system, technical system and institutional arrangement for China's MFZ with targets specified at three administrative levels and management requirements defined for different marine functional zones, which in turn facilitate the implementation of MFZ. China now is aiming to build the next generation of MFZ into a land and sea integrated zoning plan guided by the principles of ecosystem-based management. The well-established institutional arrangement and technical systems of MFZ, and the experiences accumulated in practice are available for reference by other countries.

Valuation of EAFM Indicators in Raja ampat and Aru Islands Districts

EAFM implementation need indicators that could be used as tools of monotoring and evaluation about to what extent a fisheries management has been aplicated the principles of ecosystem-based management. The aim of study of EAFM indicators valuation is to evaluate the perform of fisheries resources management with approach of EAFM indicators in Raja Ampat and Aru Islands Districts. EAFM indicators include 6 domains that are : (1) fish resources, (2) habitat and ecosystem, (3) fishing techniques, (4) Economy, (5) Social, and (6) institusional. Methods of data taking was carried out with survey method by means of interview/questionnaires and FGD (Foccus Group Discussion). Determination of samples quantity use purposive sampling. The evaluation result against domains of EAFM in Raja Ampat District ranged between 48.3 – 80.0. This is indicate that status of ecosystem-based region management in Raja Ampat District belonging in category noderate till excelent. The evaluation result against domains of EAFM in Aru Islands District ranged between 57.2 – 93.3. This is indicate that status of ecosystem-based region management in Aru Islands District belonging in category m oderate till excelent. Key words: EAFM, indicators, Raja Ampat, Aru Islands

He Mahere Pāhekoheko Mō Kaipara Moana–Integrated Ecosystem-Based Management for Kaipara Harbour, Aotearoa New Zealand

Indigenous peoples must be able to practice their ways of caring for their particular environment within their own belief systems, while also needing to understand western logic and systems, in order to work together efficiently. Navigating the divide between ontological and epistemological differences is challenging, and what this means in practice is unclear. This paper describes a framework of comanagement called He mahere pāhekoheko mō Kaipara moana – Integrated Kaipara harbour management – a model with the intent to connect and utilize indigenous Māori values and knowledge alongside principles of ecosystem-based management. He Mahere recognizes and accepts the validity of each philosophy of management on its own and does not co-opt Māori ideology. This framework successfully strengthens the position of Māori as partners in the management of the Kaipara Harbour, Aotearoa New Zealand and can inform ecosystem restoration concepts from grassroots society to the text of regional planning documents.

An approach to ecosystem-based management in maritime spatial planning process

Sustainable development is the framing concept assuring that resources are exploited while maintaining the ability of these natural resources to provide for future generations. With human dependence on marine resources increasing, Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM) has been identified as a suitable approach to ensure sustainable development. In order to achieve this, the core principles and elements of EBM should be operational in the maritime/marine spatial planning (MSP) process to ensure that human activities in marine space are ordered to attain ecological, economic and social objectives. However, policies from various states and organizations sometimes do not set a clear precedence for translating principles of EBM and present different and complex approaches to an ecosystem-based marine spatial planning (EB-MSP). Again, a feasible methodology for EBM to be operational in MSP is still vague. This paper therefore presents results from a survey and review of MSP initiatives in Europe, Asia and the Americas. Results showed that essential MSP steps and elements such as adaptive management, setting of planning boundaries, understanding and analysing the ecosystem and future conditions are not fully operational. This paper focuses on a methodology for EB-MSP and gives recommendations on how to ensure that EBM is operational at each stage of an MSP process. It stresses the importance of setting planning boundaries beyond jurisdictional borders to consider bio/eco-regions and cover near-shore waters, the need to have a cross-sector integration, understanding the ecosystem through having an ecosystem service perspective and having a legal framework to ensure that results from monitoring and evaluating of plans are adapted through review and revision.

Key principles of ecosystem‐based management: the fishermen's perspective

AbstractDespite the growing popularity of ecosystem‐based management (EBM) in national legislation and in research and institutional literature, there is often an implementation gap ‘on the ground’, impeding widespread adoption in fisheries. This gap reflects in part the differing understandings of EBM held by fishermen and by management institutions. To explore and seek to close this gap, the underlying principles of EBM considered priorities by fishermen were systematically compared with the priorities identified in the published literature. The fishermen's priorities were determined by asking Atlantic Canadian fishermen to identify the EBM principles they consider most important. Four priority principles were identified: Sustainability, Stakeholder Involvement, Develop Long‐Term Objectives and Use of All Forms of Knowledge. The latter two were not frequently noted as priorities in the literature, while some literature priorities were less commonly chosen by fishermen, indicating a significant difference in perspectives on EBM. The rationale for fishermen's choice of priorities was explored by analysing the fishery management issues they raised – many directly connected to the above four priorities. In addition, another principle, Commit to Principles of Equity, often arose as an implicit priority among fishermen. We suggest that success in implementation of EBM may depend on reconciling differing priorities among its underlying principles, and combining knowledge and expertise from fishermen with research and institutional sources. The comparative methodology used here, which could be replicated elsewhere, should lead to better recognition of local challenges in EBM implementation and encourage support for EBM, to further its contribution to sustainable fisheries.

Cost-Effective Marine Protection--A Pragmatic Approach.

This paper puts forward a framework for probabilistic and holistic cost-effectiveness analysis to provide support in selecting the least-cost set of measures to reach a multidimensional environmental objective. Following the principles of ecosystem-based management, the framework includes a flexible methodology for deriving and populating criteria for effectiveness and costs and analyzing complex ecological-economic trade-offs under uncertainty. The framework is applied in the development of the Finnish Programme of Measures (PoM) for reaching the targets of the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). The numerical results demonstrate that substantial cost savings can be realized from careful consideration of the costs and multiple effects of management measures. If adopted, the proposed PoM would yield improvements in the state of the Baltic Sea, but the overall objective of the MSFD would not be reached by the target year of 2020; for various environmental and administrative reasons, it would take longer for most measures to take full effect.

Aquaculture’s struggle for space: the need for coastal spatial planning and the potential benefits of Allocated Zones for Aquaculture (AZAs) to avoid conflict and promote sustainability

Aquaculture is an increasingly important food-producing sector, providing protein for human consumption. However, marine aquaculture often struggles for space due to the crowded nature of human activities in many marine coastal areas, and because of limited attention from spatial planning managers. Here, we assess the need for coastal spatial planning, emphasis- ing the establishment of suitable areas for the development of marine aquaculture, termed Allo- cated Zones for Aquaculture (AZAs), in which aquaculture has secured use and priority over other activities, and where potential adverse environmental impacts and negative interactions with other users are minimised or avoided. We review existing examples of marine aquaculture spatial development worldwide and discuss the proper use of site selection in relation to different legal and regulatory requirements. National or regional authorities in charge of coastal zone manage- ment should carry out spatial planning defining optimal sites for aquaculture to promote develop- ment of sustainable marine aquaculture and avoid conflict with other users, following a participa- tory approach and adhering to the principles of ecosystem-based management.

The status of marine and coastal ecosystem-based management among the network of U.S. federal programs

In the United States, management of marine and coastal resources has moved towards ecosystem-based management (EBM), which is a more systematic and integrated approach than conventional (e.g., single sector or single species) approaches. This paper summarizes the status of EBM for federal programs under the agencies of the National Ocean Council that implement or support marine and coastal EBM activities. Using social network analysis techniques, including network visualization, cohesion measures, programs degree and betweenness centrality, similarities among programs in different topic areas (e.g., type of audience, partners, training, EBM best management practices and principles) were explored. Results highlight substantial differences in perceived and effective performances across programs, with Management programs showing a higher level of integration of EBM approaches than Non-Management programs. The use of EBM best management practices and principles among programs is unbalanced, with some key elements of EBM strategies less commonly employed in the management planning. This analysis identified gaps in the implementation of EBM strategies that can inform natural resource managers and other interested parties. This paper presents the results of the analysis and discusses the implications for the implementation of EBM approaches and strategies at the federal level.