Economic Violence Research Articles

Intimate Partner Violence Among Older Women and Men in Spain: Prevalence and Types

This investigation analyzes the prevalence and type of intimate partner violence (IPV) suffered by men and women over 65 years of age. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 24 Senior Citizen Centers in the Community of Madrid, Spain. An ad hoc questionnaire was developed and 1,030 subjects (826 women and 204 men) aged 65–93 years participated. A factor analysis was performed with the different types of violence and a binary logistic regression to analyze the probability of risk of the type of violence suffered by older people with IPV. Women experienced more cases of IPV than men, although, in both groups, physical violence was lower, and the psychological or social type was more prevalent. According to the study, women were 2.2 times more likely to experience physical violence, 3.1 times more likely to experience economic violence, and 1.8 times more likely to experience verbal violence concerning men. IPV experienced by older people differs from that of younger people. It is necessary to give visibility to IPV in seniors in terms of preventive and intervention actions that can be implemented.

The Effects of Polyvictimization by Intimate Partners on Suicidality Among Salvadoran Women.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) victims tend to suffer from various mental health issues. Mental health issues, including suicidal thoughts and attempts caused by IPV victimization, might be more severe among women in El Salvador, where violence against women is prevalent overall. Although polyvictimization, which is defined as experiencing more than one type of violence by one or multiple partners, is associated with more severe mental health consequences than victimization by just a single form of violence due to accumulative trauma, not enough attention has been paid to this phenomenon among Salvadoran women. Thus, guided by trauma theory, this study aimed to examine the impact of polyvictimization from different types of violence (i.e., physical, sexual, emotional, and economic) on suicidal thoughts and attempts among Salvadoran women using the 2017 Violence Against Women National Survey. A nationally representative sample of 3,074 Salvadoran women aged 15 years or older and who had experienced an intimate relationship in their lifetime, recruited through a multistage random sampling design, was analyzed in this study using logistic regression analyses. We found that psychological and economic violence, along with physical and sexual violence, had statistically significant associations with suicidal thoughts and attempts, and polyvictimization increased suicidal thoughts and attempts. Based on this study's findings, we recommend effective research and practice or intervention implementation for addressing IPV and associated mental health problems among Salvadoran women.

Human Rights and Corruption in Settling the Accounts of the Past

Abstract Human rights abuses and corruption during authoritarian rule are rooted in the arbitrary and coercive use of power. This study examines how two post-authoritarian accountability issues intersected in the Philippines, South Korea, and Indonesia. In the Philippines and South Korea, human rights abuses and corruption were viewed as overlapping or related legacies of authoritarian rule. The activities to eliminate corruption worked as catalysts for milestones of transitional justice, and violations of socio-economic rights were acknowledged. In Indonesia, by contrast, corruption and human rights abuses were treated as special crimes that occur continually across time. Specialized agencies helped Indonesia deal with human rights abuses and corruption during the authoritarian era. This study shows that anti-corruption activities can work as a catalyst for the progress of transitional justice for human rights abuses. It also highlights that post-authoritarian practices to deal with economic violence existed in Asia before transitional justice took shape as a field.

Development and Validation of Domestic Violence Scale for Intimate Partners

Objective: Development and validation of domestic violence scale for intimate partners in Urdu language.
 Study Design: Cross sectional survey research design and purposive sampling technique were used.
 Place and Duration of Study: District Head Quarter Teaching Hospitals, Sargodha and Gujrat Pakistan, from Feb 2020 to Dec2021.
 Methodology: The domestic violence scale was based on 7 factors included neglect, psychological violence, spiritual violence, verbal violence, economic violence, physical violence, and sexual violence. Initially, 305 statements were developed on the bases of inductive and deductive approaches. 202 out of 305 items were selected after expert evaluation. Further, the pilot study retained 131 items. Moreover, for final administration data was collected by using a self-reported questionnaire on 654 married males and females from District Sargodha and District Gujrat Pakistan (including 320 injured women victimized by domestic violence reported in DHQ hospital Sargodha and Gujrat).
 Results: Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Pallant showed an acceptable value above 0.6 showing the sampling adequacy of the Domestic Violence Scale. The KMO value of the domestic violence scale was 0.955, and the CFI was 0.948 with a significant p<0.01 value. The results indicated appropriate model fit indices for a significant model fit. There was high reliability of the domestic violence scale (0.951) at a 0.01 level of significance. At the end of all analyses 25 reliable and valid items retain in the scale.
 Conclusion: Domestic violence scale is valid and reliable instrument to measure neglect, psychological violence, spiritual violence, verbal violence, economic violence, physical violence, and sexual violence.

Instrument for the study of exposure to violence in adolescents

Introduction: Violence has become a public health problem worldwide and Cuba is not exempt, there are few studies but the associated variables are not explored. In Cuba, there are no validated instruments to explore exposure to violence in adolescents in different scenarios and types of violence. Goal: To design and validate an instrument for the identification of exposure to violence in adolescents. Method: Technology development research, with the participation of 130 adolescents from Secondary Education, Pre-university Education, Technical and Professional Education and Special Behavioral Schools Categories 1 and 2, who answered the questionnaire in test-retest mode with 30 days between them; content validity was evaluated by a group of experts using Moriyama's criteria; construct validity by confirmatory factor analysis; Internal consistency by Cronbach's alpha coefficient and temporal stability by comparison test of mean ranks with Wilcoxon signs and associated p value. Results: Validated instrument for the study of exposure to violence as victims and observers of violence with the variables: physical violence, psychological violence, sexual violence, economic violence and violence due to neglect and/or abandonment in the following scenarios: home, school and community; all items met Moriyama's criteria and the construct structure was justified. The dimensions achieved acceptable to good coefficients of internal consistency (0.70<= α <= 0.93), temporal stability was met (p > 0.05). Conclusion: The instrument designed and validated to explore exposure to violence in adolescents as victims and observers in the home, school and community settings in the variables physical, psychological, sexual, economic and neglect violence fulfilled the objectives for which it was designed.

Against Dispossession: Re/membering My Cousin Héctor, the Huachicolero

Abstract: This article examines the state-owned oil giant Pemex, its role in building Mexico's middle class, and the country's continued struggle for resource sovereignty. It argues that gas theft is a potential albeit problematic form of resistance to social death in the face of dispossession, or the "bleeding out" of Mexico's national body to social and economic violence. I use an autoethnographic methodology to depict how one family member's aspirations to join Mexico's middle class turned to modern-day "banditry," for which he paid the ultimate price. Through the lens of my cousin's experience as a huachicolero, or fuel thief, I explore the relationship between neoliberal policies, violence, and resistance in contemporary Mexico.

Review of Abolition. Feminism. Now

Review of Abolition. Feminism. Now Barbara Ransby (bio) Angela Y. Davis, Gina Dent, Erica R. Meiners, and Beth E. Richie's Abolition. Feminism. Now., Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2022 Written by four of the sharpest and most respected scholar activists around, Abolition. Feminism. Now. gives us a powerful genealogy of the feminist roots of the twenty-first-century abolitionist movement and its urgent call to action. Angela Y. Davis, Gina Dent, Erica Meiners, and Beth E. Richie have the cumulative experience that covers a great swath of contemporary radical movements. The amalgam of that work, over many decades, deeply embedded in the work of many organizations, collectives, campaigns, and networks, has led all four coauthors to the place of "abolition feminism." In this book, they trace their collective journey and acknowledge all the "co-conspirators" they have embraced and worked with along the way. "Abolition feminism," the book reminds us, is both a "mode of analysis and a political practice." It insists that an end to state or interpersonal violence cannot occur without a larger feminist politics of justice, and conversely, feminists cannot rely upon oppressive carceral institutions to make women, LGBTQ, and especially trans folks, safe or free. The three major sections of the book address three questions implicit in its title: Why abolition? Why feminism? Why now? Abolition of prisons and the apparatuses of the prison industrial complex is what the new anti–state violence movement calls for. Why abolition? This book insists that reforms alone cannot end the harm caused by policing and prisons. Making nicer, kinder prisons and nicer, kinder police just has not worked. Reform after reform has failed, and even the more robust reforms have been co-opted. The very logic and purpose of the "punishment industry," as Angela Davis calls it, is to harm, coerce, violate, and diminish those with whom it comes into contact. Moreover, the system doesn't do much to heal or help the survivors and victims of harm either. The only real solution, Abolition. Feminism. Now. argues, is [End Page 227] the dismantling of prisons and the building of alternative mechanisms to ensure safety and accountability. The "building" aspect of abolition is underscored by the authors. They are not ignoring the importance of safety, but rather demanding that we think beyond guns and cages for ways to realize it. Holding up Black Youth Project 100's "Building Black Futures" campaign, and its corollary demand, "Invest/Divest," abolitionists have consistently foregrounded the need to allocate more resources for health care, affordable housing, quality public education, and jobs as critical ingredients for crime and violence prevention. They quote Ruth Wilson Gilmore, who insists abolition has never been only about "absence" but also about "presence" of critical resources and alternatives. Violence prevention is better than violent punishment, for everyone involved, and a plethora of restorative and transformative justice programs point to repair and healing as more ethical responses to "crime" than jails and prisons. In the case of poor and working-class women and femmes of color, often police intervention results in those women and femmes being further traumatized, jailed, or killed, even when they are the ones initially reaching out for help. The cases of Marissa Alexander, CeCe McDonald, Eisha Love, and Chicago's Bettie Jones are only a few examples. Why feminism? The introduction traces the roots of abolitionist politics to a number of feminist thinkers and feminist-led organizations from Critical Resistance (CR) to INCITE: Women of Color Against Violence. CR was formed in California in the early 2000s in response to the growing and insatiable prison industry in the state and nation. A feminist politics was there from the beginning, insisting on a holistic approach: inclusion of incarcerated women and the families of incarcerated men and women, and a feminist analysis of violence as systemic and not simply an amalgam of individual cases. The Color of Violence conferences hosted by INCITE built upon this feminist praxis. They insisted that violence against women and femmes was not simply a domestic issue but had to be understood in the context of state violence, settler colonial violence, and violence caused by wars and occupations, as well as economic violence. Their perspective, as...

Decolonization is Imminent: Notes on Boricua Feminism

Abstract: In Rican feminist thought, decolonizing is not merely an approach, method, or exercise, but an ongoing way of life. From Puerto Rican nationalist Lolita Lebron's cry that she "came to die for Puerto Rico" to the signal from Boricua author Elizabet Velasquez that "staying alive, well, that too is Puerto Rican history," Rican women have long struggled, resisted, and endured against colonial time. This "ongoing performance of bodily endurance" (Sandra Ruiz, 2019) under US colonialism, most recently marked by Maria, economic violence, the coronavirus pandemic, and femicide is a decolonial yearning, documented in the cultural work of Boricua women writers, artists, and activists. Boricua feminist thought, however, is largely absent in the academic feminist canon. In this paper, I argue Boricua feminism is not often interpolated as feminism since it does not resemble the expected, and particularly, Western, view of feminism as "women's struggles against men and patriarchy," though multiple patriarchies hinder the lives of Puerto Rican women and gender minorities. Rather, anticolonialism is at the forefront of Boricua feminist and queer struggles and subjectivities, yet is dislocated by these same lenses, and interpellated as not properly endemic to gender and sexual identity formations. Yet Boricua feminism is vital to decolonial feminist imaginings.

Intimate Partner Violence and Health Outcomes Among Women Living With HIV/AIDS in Ghana: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is known to have negative health consequences for victims. For women living with HIV/AIDS, whose health may be compromised, exposure to IPV can be devastating. Yet few (if any) studies have explored the health implications of exposure to IPV among HIV-positive women. We begin to fill this gap by examining the effects of various dimensions of IPV (physical, sexual, psychological/emotional, and economic) on the cardiovascular, psychosocial, and sexual reproductive health outcomes of HIV-positive women in Ghana. Data were collected from a cross-section of 538 HIV-positive women aged 18 years and older in the Lower Manya Krobo District in the Eastern Region. We used logit models to explore relationships between IPV and health. The findings indicate high prevalence of IPV in our sample: physical violence (61%), sexual violence (50.9%), emotional/psychological violence (79.6%), and economic violence (66.8%). Generally, participants with experiences of IPV reported cardiovascular health problems, unwanted pregnancies and pregnancy loss, and poor psychosocial health. Our findings suggest the importance of screening for IPV as part of HIV care in Ghana.

‘Who likes kidneys?’ ‘Fried in the pan?’

Taking a video of the Serbian paramilitary Scorpions unit recording killing as a starting point and drawing upon my own research on WWII and the German genocide, the purpose of this essay is to probe the methodological and ethical challenges of visual sources (videos, photographs) that mediate acts and experiences of violence. Today’s viewers might first notice the striking violence and horror of the Scorpions unit video, reacting in many cases with shock, alienation, or empathy. Once we engage with the gaze of the videographer, it becomes clear that the recorded scenes follow a completely different logic. Despite its indisputably violent content, the video manages to convey the impression of male bonding, fun, and bravado in a fiercely violent and racialised armed conflict, in which ethnic, religious, and national categories were murderously conflated. The Scorpions unit, like many other professional killers, was embedded in a climate of impunity and an economy of violence with significant gendered dynamics at stake that we need to question. The act of recording is a highly performative and self-referential endeavour that calls us for investigating not solely social practices but also postures and gesture as acts of visual mediation. A first section reflects on the social constellations of collective violence of perpetrators as ingroups. In the second part, the focus shifts from the violent action itself to the semantics of violent gestures, before turning in the third section to reflect upon (audio)visual recordings of violence. Visual and audio-visual sources as media hence invite us to think about the complex relationship between artefact and actors. Methodological and heuristic questions about how we deal with images of violence, particularly those captured by perpetrators, constitute, as this essay argues, one of the major challenges of studying the twentieth-century photographic age and even more so, our current digital era.

Economic Violence Against Women: A Case of Mental Health Perspective

<p class="06IsiAbstrak">As a group who are considered weak, it is not surprising that the cases of violence against women tend to happen repeatedly in Indonesia. Although there are a plethora of violence such as physical violence, psychological violence, sexual violence, and economic violence, these days physical violence remains the number one case in society. Generally economic violence is completely an invisible form of violence in society. This is essentially deemed a small matter, in which one of the causes is the concept of authoritarianism embedded in society. This study aims to investigate the forms of economic violence frequently experienced by women and its impact on women’s mental health. A qualitative method was employed with a case study approach. A purposive sampling was presented in this study with the sample consisting of two people. The findings showed that there are several varieties of economic violence against women such as inhibiting the development of women’s career, taking women’s financial well-being without permission, controlling family assets strictly, and obligating women to create a financial report. In addition, this violence has a significant deteriorating effect on women's mental health including frustration, conflict, fright, stress, and threats. As the last point, it was found that there is a relevance between economic violence and other types of violence</p>

Obstetric violence in southwestern Turkey: Risk factors and its relationship to postpartum depression

This study was conducted to determine the relationship between violence, risk factors, and depression at the end of pregnancy. The sample of this descriptive and cross-sectional study consisted of 426 women for normal postpartum monitoring during the six-month period and living in southwestern Turkey of the study. About 5.6% of the women who participated in the study were exposed to obstetric violence. 5.2% of them were intimate partner violence before pregnancy. 79.1% (n = 24), 29.1%, and 25% of them were subjected to physical, sexual, and economic violence, respectively. In addition, 7.5% of women were exposed to verbal obstetric violence. It was found that the postpartum depression scores of the women who had been subjected to violence from their husbands before pregnancy were high.

Exploring the Types of GBV Reported in Kibera Slums and the Available Interventions

Worldwide, gender-based violence (GBV) is quite prevalent with domestic violence being voiced as the most common (WHO, 2020). The WHO states that about 35% of women in the world have had an experience once in a lifetime of either sexual and/or physical non-partner or intimate partner sexual violence (WHO, 2020). Gender-based violence is the most widespread, socially tolerated human rights violation in the world. It kills; disables and harms more people especially women. The violence can take many forms including physical, sexual, psychological, and economic violence (WHO, 2020). In Kenya, about 45% of women aged 15 - 49 years reported having experienced various forms of gender-based violence in their lifetime, and out of these, 29% women reported having had the experience in the previous year. Besides, 16% women had experienced sexual abuse in their lifetime, and 13% of the women had it in the previous year (KDHS, 2014). Kibera slums is one of the biggest informal settlements in Kenya and largest slum in Sub-Saharan Africa where various issues have been reported including insecurity, poor water, hygiene and sanitation, poor housing among others. Majority of its inhabitants are of very low socio-economic status. The purpose of this study was to explore the types of GBV prevalent in Kibera slums and the available interventions to address this problem. This study specific objectives were to identify the types of GBV reported by women of reproductive age in Kibera slums and to find out the types of GBV interventions offered to women of reproductive age in Kibera. The study adopted a cross-sectional study design. This used a mixed methods research where both qualitative and quantitative data were collected using a questionnaire and analyzed. The study respected the ethical considerations in research. The results showed that women of reproductive age in Kibera slums had experienced many forms of gender-based violence. Out the 390 respondents, 34 (8.7%) had experienced physical abuse, 95 (24.4%) had experienced verbal abuse and 60(15.4%) experienced sexual harassment while 91 (23.3%) of the respondents had not experienced any type of GBV. Most survivors 147 (49.1%) of GBV had never received any interventions. Only 39 (13.1%) of the survivors of GBV had received medical treatment, 44 (14.7%) had received guidance and counselling and incorporated to a support group, only 13 (4.3%) had taken legal measures against the perpetrators. In Kibera slums, all forms of gender-based violence are still prevalent and more interventions are needed to address this public health issue with a special focus on informal settlements.

Analysis of the rate of working women's acceptance of partner violence and cultural reflections in Cypriot society.

This case study aims to measure the level of acceptance of violence among women and couples and to reveal the level of acceptance within and outside the families of women who have participated in working life. The concepts of anger and violence, physical, sexual, psychological, emotional, and economic violence, which are the sub-components of violence, violence in dating, and marital relations are examined separately according to Feminism and Social Learning Theory approaches. The Working Group was formed by applying questionnaires to 50 participants from the cities of Kyrenia, Güzelyurt, Lefke, Nicosia, and Magusa and determining the 20 participants with the highest level of acceptance of violence. The 11 people who agreed to the study were interviewed for a Dec of 1 week and 5 sessions ranging from 20 to 30 min. It is observed that women who are subjected to violence have a deep sense of helplessness and accept their helplessness, as well as those women resort to various passive solutions, such as silence and avoiding attitudes that make their partner angrier. The sense of helplessness, as a result of chronic depression, makes it inevitable to experience suicide cases. This study will be particularly important in terms of revealing the levels of domestic and non-family violence exposure and acceptance of violence by women who have participated in working life.

Predatory economics fuelling insecurity: violence and the commodification of labour in South Sudan

ABSTRACT This article explores how predatory economic processes play out in South Sudan, particularly in fuelling conflict and competition. It posits that issues of personal wealth and communal patronage are just as essential to understanding the conflict as politics, ideology and personal animosities. The article highlights the structural incentives for coercive economics and the commodification of labour. Exploring two case studies, it analyses how contests over the vital oil and cattle industries create insecurity in South Sudan, outlining the actors, methods and incentives involved in this economic violence. It concludes with opportunities for further research.

Attitudes and behaviours of family physicians towards clinical practice around intimate partner violence: a view from the Çankaya district of Ankara, Turkey.

Although family physicians (FPs) often encounter patients who have been subjected to intimate partner violence (IPV), the data on FPs' response to IPV is limited. This study aimed to determine FPs' attitudes towards IPV survivors in the Çankaya district of Ankara, Turkey. An online questionnaire designed to elicit sociodemographic information and FPs' attitudes towards IPV was distributed between 20 August 2021 and 20 October 2021. Eighty-nine FPs participated in the study. Of the participants, 71.9% had a patient diagnosed with IPV during their practice. Of these physicians, 100% diagnosed physical, 56.3% sexual, 71.9% psychological, 53.1% economic, and 10.9% cyber violence. Among these physicians, sexual, psychological, and economic violence were determined at higher rates by family medicine specialists (FMSs) compared to general practitioners (GPs), by FPs who had received IPV training compared to those who were untrained, and by female physicians compared to males (P<0.05). Despite diagnosing IPV, some physicians did not intervene/guide their patients, and some only consoled their patients because they thought the situation was inevitable. The reasons for not taking official action included insufficient time, feeling uncomfortable talking about violence, lack of information about the detection and reporting, and the thought that the woman would not leave her abusive partner. The results showed that among the physicians who encountered IPV, female sex, family medicine speciality training, and IPV training resulted in acting more consciously in diagnosing violence, implementing referral and notification systems, and approaching IPV survivors. The prevention of IPV could be made possible by supporting FPs with ongoing training, breaking down stereotypes and prejudices about gender roles, and changing the structures that maintain unequal power relationships.

Domestic violence victimization among Chinese women and its relevance to their economic power.

This study conducted a survey of domestic violence victimization among women in China. Previously little research has been conducted on the subject of domestic violence against Chinese women as well as its relevance to their own economic power. Using online questionnaires, this study collected data about 412 women with current or previous marital status who came from four income brackets in Beijing and Shanghai. It revealed that the proportions of physical, emotional, economic, and sexual violence they experienced were about 27.91%, 62.38%, 21.12%, and 30.10%, respectively. Women belonging to the highest income bracket faced almost the same risk of domestic violence compared with other income groups. Furthermore, there was a slight upward tendency in physical and emotional violence victimization in the highest-income group. The binary logistic regression analysis showed that adverse childhood experiences, arguments between couples due to different opinions regarding gender ideologies, and the approval level for specific gender ideologies were common significant factors across different income brackets. When all income brackets were considered, a higher income was tested as a protective factor with regard to sexual violence. As for the income gap between couples, women whose incomes were "once higher than that of the husband but now lower/almost the same" or "always higher than that of the husband" faced a higher risk of physical violence than women whose incomes were "always lower than/almost the same as that of the husband." This study not only revealed the reality of domestic violence victimization in China but also suggested that more attention should be paid to high-income women's domestic violence victimization as well as the importance of helping them both through academia and domestic violence support institutions.

Öğrencilerin Kadına Şiddete Karşı Tutumlarında Cinsiyet Farklılıkları

Aim: This study was conducted as a descriptive study with the aim of determining the views and attitudes of university students about domestic violence against women.Method: The research was carried out between May and June 2018. The population of the research consisted of students studying at faculties and colleges within a university, and the sample consisted of 2453 students who agreed to participate in the study. The first part of the questionnaire, which was prepared by the researchers as a result of the literature review, consists of questions containing information about the introductory characteristics of the students; The second part consists of 34 questions about attitudes towards violence against women. Chi-square test was applied to examine the relationship between the variables.Results: Considering the results obtained from the findings, it was determined that there was a significant difference between the attitudes of female and male students towards economic, sexual, verbal, and physical violence against women (p&amp;lt;0,05). While women exhibited a more egalitarian attitude towards gender equality, male students displayed a traditional attitude. It was stated by 77,9% of the students that they did not experience violence from their families and 79,5% of them stated that they did not witness violence between their families.Conclusion: Knowing the attitudes of university students towards violence against women can contribute to the development of violence against women policies.

Exploration of Male Partners’ Gender Based Violence by Female Partners in Dar es Salaam-Tanzania

This study explored Gender Based violence of male partners by female partners in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, using the qualitative approach. It employed a prolonged field engagement through in-depth interviews. While Dar es Salaam Region consists five municipalities, this study was conducted in Ilala Municipality owing its strategic location in the city with big populations and large social interactions. Through snowball sampling technique, 25 men were sampled as respondents and thematic analysis was used to analyze the data. The study established that males experienced a variety of gender-based violence including physical, psychological and economic violence. Factors contributing to gender-based violence included lack of awareness and negative perception toward gender-based violence services. Because of the patriarchal nature of the society, men who experience GBV did not report the incidents since they felt being embarrassed and undermined by the community's social structure. Based on conclusions, the study recommends that men should strive to get empowered economically, considering that there has been a positive correlation between men’s economic powerlessness and violence against them by their partners. Affected men should be sensitized on the availability and significance of various institutions dealing with GBV; they should consult the institutions whenever they fall victim to GBV. Finally, there is a need for more male representation in gender desks since gender desks in many police stations currently lack equitable men representation.

Domestic Violence against Women: Diagnosis of a Serious Social Fact

Domestic violence against women today is recognized as a real social scourge that has significant impacts on all families whether it is the victim or the witnesses, often the children. Through this article we make a diagnosis of the phenomenon, because this violence is not limited to physical assaults, there are also psychological violence, threats and intimidation, economic violence as well as sexual violence. In addition, these different forms of violence can appear gradually and intensify over time, forming a vicious cycle that few victims distinguish.