Economic Emigration Research Articles

Determinants of the Tendency for Migration of Nursing Students Living in Rural Areas of Eastern Poland

The economic emigration of young people from rural areas in Poland, and in particular the emigration of young medical personnel, is a relatively little-recognized phenomenon. What distinguishes this study from many works on related topics is that the subject of the study is the tendency or desire to migrate itself, and not the study of the migration motives of people who have already emigrated. The main aim of the research was to identify the migration conditions of young nurses from rural areas. An additional goal was to determine the directions and types of foreign migrations and their impact on the competitiveness and sustainable development of the studied region. The research was conducted in five voivodeships of Eastern Poland among students at state medical universities. The research tool was a survey, the essence of which was to provide data on the purpose of migration of young people, chances of finding a job abroad, and identification of push and pull migration factors. Based on the logistic regression model, a number of factors were identified explaining the tendency to migrate, such as economic factors, gaining professional experience, and prospects. The influence of factors pushing migration should be reduced through state policy tools. The intensity of migration may significantly impact the sustainable development of healthcare in Poland in the near and distant future.

The end of terraces? Fans’ identity in times of crisis in Poland

ABSTRACT The main assumption of the text is that, in Poland, small fan groups are facing a threat to their existence, and many of them are functioning in an evident crisis. Based on secondary data, the main mechanisms influencing the problems of fan groups from smaller clubs in maintaining and developing their potential will be reconstructed. These mechanisms are: economic emigration of supporters, ageing of supporter group members (lack of generational replacement), ‘old-fashioned’ style of supporting based on violence and aggression, the changing attitude of the young generation to spend free time and decreasing interest of young people to participate in fan culture, lack of sporting success of clubs, lack of fan rivals in low-level football leagues. The article concludes that in the near future, the number of fan groups of small clubs will drastically decrease, and the whole fan culture in Poland will face crisis and uncertainty.

Economic Emigration from Poland to Latvia in 1928–1939

The economic emigration from Poland to Latvia was a consequence of the socio-economic situation in both countries. The internal determinants of emigration were agrarian overpopulation and poverty in the Polish countryside. In this situation, many people saw a chance to improve their lives abroad. The problem of the overabundance of labourers in rural Poland coincided with a period of economic growth in Latvia. At a time when Poland was struggling with overpopulation and an excess of labour in the countryside, the Baltic country faced scarcity of hands in agriculture. The emigration movement to Latvia lasted from 1928 to 1939. The number of Polish workers employed in Latvian agriculture is estimated at over 100,000 people. The aim of the article is to analyse the origins, course and consequences of economic emigration from Poland to Latvia during this period.

Accession of Ukraine to the European Union - opportunities and threats on the example of Poland

The article describes the stages of Poland’s accession to the European Union and shows the specificity of the negotiation processes. While examining the political and so-cio-economic situation of Poland as well as the needs and conditions of European com-munities that contributed to Poland’s membership in the European Union, the author constantly makes comparisons with Ukraine. In particular, it was emphasized that the European communities, when making decisions regarding Poland, took into account its role as a leader in the fight against the communist system, and in relation to Ukraine - the heroic struggle of the Ukrainian nation against the Russian aggressor. The author indicates the opportunities and threats related to Ukraine’s accession to the European Union in the context of Polish experiences. Key words: European integration, acquis communautaire, state sovereignty, EU freedoms, economic emigration, national identity, national security, development of science.

Zmagania z niepewnością w biografiach członków rodzin emigrantów zarobkowych

The manner of functioning among family members who experience separation as a result of emigration shows that it is part of their biography, as a permanent element in the organisation of life. For the children of emigrants, the absence of a parent is an expression of the fact that the family’s functioning changed as a result of travelling abroad, depriving them of stability and predictability in family life. The remarks of emigrants’ family members remaining at home reflect the cyclical rhythm of everyday life, and indicate the day-to-day absence of the emigrant and their presence during holidays, which is a recipe for conflict. Emigration causes uncertainty. A fear of unexpected events, which occur without the presence of a parent who is simply unable to return on time, is characteristic of the children of emigrants. The feeling of insecurity and risk develops a kind of healing sense of temporariness, a sense that the state of separation will soon come to an end, which lowers the emotional tension of the family members remaining in Poland. The analysis presented in this article covers the findings of the author’s research, conducted using the biographical method on the everyday experiences of people whose reality was shaped by the hardships of migration separation. In many respects the research reveals that the beliefs of economic emigrants’ family members concerning the perception of separation is an experience that violates the imaginary image of a stable family.

NATIONAL MINORITIES IN THE EMIGRATION MOVEMENT FROM POLAND TO LATVIA (1928-1939)

The aim of the article is to comprehensively show the participation of representatives of national minorities among Polish economic migrants in Latvia in the years 1928 - 1939. Methodology. When writing the article, the basic principles of historical knowledge were used: historicism, scientificity, objectivity. Specific search tasks of the research were solved by problem-chronological means (optimal involvement of the thematic literature and source base); historical-comparative (analysis of various sources and formation of relevant research provisions and conclusions); critical analysis (critical attitude to various sources) methods. The scientific noveltyconsists of a given publication is the introduction into circulation of a significant amount of hitherto unknown scientific sources concerning the nationality structure of Polish economic migrants in Latvia in the discussed period. Conclusions. The economic emigration from Poland to Latvia was a consequence of the socio-economic situation in both countries. The internal determinants of emigration were agrarian overpopulation and poverty in the Polish countryside. In this situation, many people saw a chance to improve their lives abroad. The problem of the excess of hands to work in the Polish countryside coincided with a period of economic growth in Latvia. At a time when Poland was struggling with overpopulation and an excess of labor in the countryside, the Baltic country faced scarcity of hands in agriculture. The emigration movement to Latvia lasted from 1928 to 1939. The number of Polish workers employed in Latvian agriculture is estimated at over 100,000 people. Polish emigrants were characterized by great ethnic diversity. Poles, Belarusians and Lithuanians predominated in numbers, who during their stays abroad became the object of interest of representatives of the Lithuanian and Belarusian diaspora in Latvia.

Typológia sestier emigrantiek zo Slovenska v kontexte medzinárodnej migrácie sestier

Objective: The aim of the qualitative study was to identify the types of nurses-emigrant from Slovakia and their motives for leaving to work in German-speaking countries. Methodology: Data collection was carried out through semi-structured interviews in the period from June 15 to August 15, 2022. The criteria for the inclusion of participants in the qualitative study were as follows: qualified nurses who received their qualification in Slovakia and emigrated to Austria, Germany, or Switzerland. Results: Of the 30 participants, 22 were economic emigrants, three nurse were categorized as an emigrant-adventurer, two nurses as career emigrants, two nurses represented the type of emigrant nurse preferring quality of life, and one participant followed her partner. Conclusion: Findings from this study and similar research could provide nursing managers with knowledge about the factors influencing nurse migration and ideas for strategic measures to maintain human resources in nursing.

Geographical characteristics of the distribution of the population of the Kosanica region - correlation with the development of tourism

The goal of this research is the analysis of the geographical features of the population distribution of the Kosanica settlement. The centre of the analysis is the geographical area of the Kosanica region and the changes in the demographic structure of the settlement caused by two socio-economic processes: economic emigration to the city centre of Kursumlija, or to the larger city centres of Serbia on the one hand, and on the other hand a diametrically opposite process - the development of tourism in spa settlements. Population projections are related to the implementation of population policy, that is accepting the inevitable situation, changing what can be changed, which means changing the demographic dynamics and trends in order to harmonize with the expected socio-economic processes. In the conclusion of this work the author predicts a moderate growth in spa settlements and stable fertility to a level that, as a minimum, ensures population renewal through the development of tourism, while in other rural settlements and in the city centre of Kursumlija, the demographic structure of the population is getting worse.

Social Ties in Polish Families in Ireland: A Comparative Analysis Based on Own Research in the Last Decade

This article focuses on the concept of social ties in Polish families living in Ireland. It is not sufficiently represented in research work on economic emigration, especially post-accession emigration to Ireland, considering the context of the functioning of a modern migrant in their interpersonal space. It is important that the life of modern man is shaped by lots of interpersonal interactions in the social space, too. Yet, more important are interactions in the families from which the migrants come, in which they function or with whom they want to function. After opening the labor market to citizens of the new EU member states in 2004, Ireland hired the largest number of workers from the EU-8 countries. This approach was defined and analyzed on the basis of the group of respondents who were post-accession migrants in Ireland (N 461) in the research survey conducted in July and August of 2015 in Ireland and based on the 2016 and 2019 qualitative surveys on families in Ireland. Three research projects were analyzed. Therefore, the main subject of the article is to draw the reader’s attention to the issues of interpersonal relations and the importance of the family in the minds of the respondents, who were migrants. The research contains interesting, from the point of view of a sociologist, information on the preferences of Polish migrants in the field of shaping family relationships, the strength of family ties and the social roles performed based on these. The collected data show that there is a change in the functioning of the modern family, especially in the context of its functions, the roles of family members as well as openness to its alternative forms, but these changes are not significant enough to speak of a transformation of the nuclear family.

Narodowy Plan Stabilizacyjny z 1959 roku jako próba przezwyciężenia kryzysu gospodarczego w Hiszpanii

The aim of the article is to indicate the causes, conditions and effects of undertaking a deep economic reform in Spain at the end of the 1950s, resulting from the National Stabilization Plan, and its economic, social and political assumptions. The entry into force of the Stabilisation Plan, forced by the country's precarious economic situation and prepared under pressure from the United States and international financial institutions, meant the rejection of the policy of economic autarky and protectionism pursued thus far by the Franco regime, while at the same time opening Spain to the outside world, the inflow of foreign capital, the development of the tourism services sector and mass economic emigration of its citizens. The implementation of the Plan was an economic success. As a result, Spain embarked on a path of rapid economic development, real wages increased and unemployment flattened at a minimum level. The economic success of the Plan was also exploited politically by the Franco regime. The so-called ideology of development promoted by the government was intended to divert attention from the enduring undemocratic system of government, allowing the regime to continue in conditions of favourable prosperity and a developing economy.

Legal and Social Aspects of the Belarusian Economic Emigration to Canada in the 1920s-30s

The author examines the main features for the formation of the Belarusian economic emigration to Canada. The intensity of the emigration from 1921 to 1939 was analyzed, when the territory of Western Belarus was a part of Poland. The historical base of the research was the unpublished documents of the Belarusian, Ukrainian and Polish archives. The article presents the structure of state emigration bodies that were involved in organizing and controlling the recruitment of emigrants, their employment and the process of re-emigration. It describes the features of the Canadian legislation for the scale of the Belarusian emigration and the legal adaptation of emigrants. Particular attention is paid to the role of the Canadian railway companies “Canadian National Railways” and “Canadian Pacific Railways” in the selection of emigrants and their employment in agriculture and industry. The author argue that the Polish authorities stimulated the emigration of the Belarusian population for the polonization of Western Belarus. The problematic socio-psychological adaptation of the Belarusian emigrants, because Belarusians in Canada weakly expressed the national identity, is described. The author concludes that the international cooperation had an important role in forming the diaspora’s and national identity, especially the international contacts with the representatives of other peoples and the participation in common political organizations and projects.

Opieka konsularna nad polskimi emigrantami sezonowymi na Łotwie w latach 1928–1939

The interwar Polish state was plagued by many social and economic problems. Among them were unemployment and poverty. The problem of surplus of labor in the Polish countryside coincided with the dynamic development of agriculture in the Latvian state. As a result, thousands of Polish farmers went to Latvia to work in local agriculture. Emigration from Poland to Latvia was seasonal. In the years 1928-1939, over 100,000 Poles passed through Latvian agriculture. The Polish consulates in Riga and Daugavpils took care of these emigrants. These consulates could not complain about the lack of work. In particular, related obligations were imposed on the Consulate of the Republic of Poland in Riga, which looked after the largest number of Polish economic emigrants. Consulates defended the interests of emigrants in situations of disputes with Latvian employers. A characteristic feature of Polish seasonal emigration to Latvia was that it mainly consisted of rural youth who had never left their hometown before. This required the Polish authorities to pay special attention to the issue of caring for these people. Therefore, consular offices tried to take care of the image of emigrants and influence their behavior as well as moral and national attitudes.

Wrażliwość międzykulturowa polskich emigrantów w Anglii w porównaniu z obywatelami Wielkiej Brytanii i Polski zamieszkałymi w kraju pochodzenia

The aim of the study was to try to determine differences in the level of intercultural sensitivity of Polish economic emigrants in England, compared to citizens of Great Britain and Poland living in their country of origin. Intercultural sensitivity is understood as an indicator of competence to intercultural communication expressed in the readiness to lead dialogue with a culturally different person. The research was conducted in England and Poland, using the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (ISS) by G.-M. Chen and W.J. Starosta, adapted to the Polish conditions by the author of this article. As a result of the conducted research, it was found that the highest level of readiness for dialogue with a culturally different person is presented by the surveyed citizens of Great Britain (who obtained in most of the analysed dimensions high and average results in the upper range) and the lowest – by Polish nationals residing in their country of origin (their results ranked as average).

Staff shortages and inappropriate work conditions as a challenge geriatrics and contemporary healthcare service at large faces

Deficit of human resources in health care is a widespread problem occurring not only in Polish system. Demanding work, emotional stresses and insufficient support are often associated with the doctor's shift mode of work and an excess of duties combined with a shortage of time allocated to their performance. It can be assumed that most of the doctors intend to continue their work so far, but its negative features may in the future affect their decisions about choosing a different career path, especially if the shortage of medical personnel increases. This may further overburden doctors (especially young doctors) with excess working hours, reduce the quality of their activities, increase the chances of committing an unintended medical error related to exhaustion, and lead to functional burnout. This situation may lead to a renewed intensification of economic emigration to other countries, both in the EU and outside the EU, which create more favourable working conditions for working life. The scale of the problem is exacerbated by the increasing health needs of the aging population, causing an increasing burden on the health care sector, both in the near and distant future. This can create a vicious cycle where increasing burdens will drain physicians out of public health system, and increase the burden put on remaining physicians. The resulting restriction of access to medical services will lead to the deterioration of the health condition of the Polish population. In order to prevent such a situation, it would be necessary to increase the motivation to remain both in the medical profession and at work in Poland through actions aimed at improving working conditions and strengthening the sense of occupational safety of doctors. These activities should be especially aimed at group of medics starting their professional lives.

Portret antropologiczny rdzennych mieszkańców pogranicza polsko-niemieckiego urodzonych przed 1945 rokiem

An Anthropological Portrayal of the Native Inhabitants of the Polish-German Borderland Born Before 1945The article presents the results of field research carried out among the native inhabitants of the Lubusz Voivodship who were born in the former eastern territory of the then German state before 1945. Between 2009 and 2011, the authors conducted in-depth anthropological interviews with 28 informants in 17 localities in the Voivodship. These informants are the last remaining representatives of the former populace in this area, since the majority of the local inhabitants left Poland: some were evacuated or fled in the face of the advancing Red Army in 1945, others were victims of the so-called “wild” expulsions as well as resettlements, and still others emigrated under family reunification programs. One more factor was economic emigration, which has continued up to the present day. Thus, those inhabitants who remained are the last witnesses to the history of life experiences which began here already in pre-World War II times. This makes them special as they have a unique sense of rootedness in the region, unlike other inhabitants, who are newcomers there.The external identity of the interviewees, that is, the identity given to them by others, is often different from their internal, subjective identity, which is felt and expressed in narratives. In the period following World War II the native populace was termed “autochtons”. The category of “autochton” was constructed from the outside, taking into consideration only elements of Polish culture, and completely ignored any ties with German culture. The presence of the “autochtons” officially served the purpose of legitimizing the so-called “recovered territories”, that is, the territories incorporated into Poland in 1945. On the other hand, the autochtons were ascribed a German identity by new settlers who arrived in the Lubusz land from different regions of Poland, and who labeled the locals “Germans” or “Nazis”. The internal identity of the interviewees is characterized by Polish-German cultural bivalence, which shows most of all in their active bilingualism and often in denominational conversions or bivalent (Catholic-Evangelical) faith as well as a lack of a univocal acceptance of just one national option.

THE IMAGE OF THE «STRANGER» IN ORAL NARRATIVES ABOUT GERMANY

The article examines the image of a «German» as a «stranger / other», which is one of the most expressive ethical and aesthetic dominants not only in historical memory, but also in modern narratives. Its emergence was based on intercultural and socio-political processes, led to the creation of ethnostereotypes in folklore; the image of the “German” can be clearly traced among these. This element of folklore tended to gain greater prominence during the period of political and social upheaval, for example during the First and Second World Wars, or waves of political and economic emigration. The research methodology involved the application of narrative interviews, i.e., recording information on digital media, and then deciphering (transcribing) it preservinge the lexical, grammatical and syntactic features of the narrator’s speech, This made it possible to record and use a hundred biographical stories of respondents whose lives in one way or another related to the subject of Germany. The recorded data shows that the folklore impression of the sociostereotypical image of the «German» is infused with distinct dominant features, which are usually interpreted in a positive way nowadays. Analysis indicates that very often the phrase «typical German» becomes clear to the interlocutors and does not require additional interpretation, as the respondents resort to stereotyping the image. The paper also examines the construction of the so-called «mental maps» when a group or an individual, uses certain semantic meanings and connotations, to characterizes the surrounding territory, by imbuing it with their understanding of its social and cultural features. National images are observed to have a dual nature: they are mainly constructed not only topdown, but also bottom-up, based on the beliefs, superstitions, and needs of the common people. While the «stranger» has negative connotations in folklore, the studied narratives highlight «we vs. they» clash, that emphasizes the selfawareness of one’s own national identity.

Field Research of the Economic and Cultural Chinese Emigrants Activities in the Far East and Siberia (1949-2019)

The article is devoted to the study of labor migration in the system of Russian (Soviet)-Chinese relations 1949-2019. The article is based on unique previously unpublished archival data and field research. The authors consider the circumstances that had a significant impact on the migration policy of the USSR, which, in conditions of a small number of its own population, needed to attract immigrants from China to the Far East and the Siberian part of the USSR; analyze the reasons and benefits of the PRC, allowing the leadership of the republic to send its citizens to study and work in the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation. Using concrete examples and archival data, the authors studied the dynamics of Chinese migration, the reasons for their moving abroad and returning to their homeland, highlighting two periods of active Chinese migration to Russia: 1) 1949-1966; 2) 1990-2019. The authors studied the activities of Chinese communities in Russian (Soviet) territories in both periods and came to the conclusion that these two periods are radically different from each other. During the "Soviet period" of labor migration, Chinese workers, on the one hand, easily assimilated in the Far East and Siberia, easily made friends among the local population, married Soviet women, on the other hand, maintained contact with their native culture, transported their wives and children to the USSR, who had a specially created kindergarten and school program for them with the study of Chinese lingua and culture. The "Russian period" is distinguished by the isolation of the life of Chinese communities, many of whose members have illegal status and are engaged in corruption. Nevertheless, labor migrants from China feel very comfortable living in the Far East and Siberia. Most Chinese emigrants have the goal of improving their economic situation and getting an education, achieving which more than 99% of Chinese return to China.

The Three-Decade Cycle of Lithuanian Prose

In the period of 1989-2020 Lithuanian literature experienced a very dynamic literary development. The aim of the article is to highlight specifics of the new cycle and to analyze the prose trends of each decade of regained independence. The author discusses the literary process more synchronically than diachronically. The first period, i.e. the transition from the Soviet regime to the new system, was especially outstanding as the censorship was eliminated, the previously banned works of deportees and resisters were legalized, the postwar émigré writers returned back to culture and opportunities for innovation opened up.The role of writer as a cultural hero diminished. Former writers loyal to the Soviet regime described this situation as crisis, while the younger generation developed postmodernist way of writing. Many works were based on the cultural and historical memory reckoning with the Soviet era. All genres underwent certain transformations, such as emergence of peculiar essay genre, spread of ego-documentaries, revival of short stories, and flourishing popular literature.Serious changes took place after 2004 when Lithuania joined the European Union, which led to economic emigration and encouraged changes in mentality and expanse of local contexts. Mobile, “transit” type of Lithuanian character emerged who changed his place of residence but felt lonely in the global world. This is a huge innovation, bearing in mind the sedentary agrarian Lithuanian culture and the confines of the iron curtain during the Soviet era. Increased quantity of published books decreased their quality.

Those Who Left and Those Who Arrived

In the years after the Second World War, the city of Rijeka found itself caught in the middle of various migratory trajectories. The departure of locals who self-identified as Italians and opted for Italian citizenship occurred simultaneously with other population movements that drained the city of inhabitants and brought in newcomers. Many locals defected and traveled to Italy, which was either their final destination or a country they transited through before being resettled elsewhere. Furthermore, after the war ended, workers from other Yugoslav areas started arriving in the city. A flourishing economy proved capable of attracting migrants with promises of good living standards; however, political reasons also motivated many to move to this Adriatic city. The latter was the case for former economic emigrants who decided to return to join the new socialist homeland and for Italian workers who symbolically sided with the socialist Yugoslavia. Rijeka was not simply a destination for many migrants—it was also a springboard for individuals from all over the Yugoslav Federation to reach the Western Bloc. This article argues that examining these intertwining patterns together rather than separately offers new insight into the challenges the city experienced during its postwar transition.

Repatriacja/reemigracja Polaków z Węgier po zakończeniu II wojny światowej

The repatriation/re-emigration of Polish people from Hungary after World War II There were many Polish inhabitants in Hungary after the end of the World War II. They were economic emigrants who arrived at the end of the 19th century or refugees who crossed the Polish-Hungarian border in 1939. The goal of Polish representatives in Budapest (diplomats from July 1946) was to organize repatriation/re-emigration which would include both groups. The execution was not easy due to the problems with supplies, lack of money and difficulties to estimate the number of Polish people in Hungary. According to Polish government regime, repatriated people/re-emigrants were to help in rebuilding of the destroyed country, populating it, and developing Recovered Territories, whose status in the first post-war years had not been officially established yet.