Eco-efficient Production Research Articles

SCENARIO DEVELOPMENT AND DELPHI APPLICATION IN LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT FOR ASSESSING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF NEW TECHNOLOGY CASE STUDY: REMOVAL OF WIND TURBINES PROJECT

Certain technology is intended to create eco-efficient products or process or is developed as answer to the recent challenge. This kind of technology consequently can also create another impact therefore it shall be assessed and analyzed. The focus of the study is on assessment method namely Life Cycle Analysis (LCA), Scenario development and Delphi application. The objective is to understand benefits and drawbacks of the combined methodology and observe practicality of its implementation for assessing new technology. The distinctive feature comes from the combination of social and technological foresight (as Delphi application) and future studies (as Scenario development) which are applied in the environmental assessment of a product (by Life Cycle Analysis). The utilization of LCA-Scenario-Delphi case study as an explanatory example is presented in the Removal Wind Turbines Project by the Danish Energy Agency. The wind turbine is considered new technology with some of it phases are yet to occur, for example: removal of turbines after phase out stage. Technology Assessment by LCA-Scenario-Delphi is complicated procedure, but necessary to validate the results. The drawbacks of this procedure are extensive time it consumes and the dependency on public participation and/or expert willingness to participate. Nonetheless, its advantages are due to its interactive feature; integration of knowledge from different areas of expertise and its assessment’s characteristic which focuses on process.

Feasibility of environmental product information based on life cycle thinking and recommendations for Switzerland

In the recent past, several initiatives have been launched to reveal the carbon footprint of consumer products or provide other life cycle based environmental information. The presentation of environmental product information (EPI) may contribute to better informed purchase decisions. It would help to direct the attention of companies to more eco-efficient products and production processes. Yet several key aspects still need clarification. The strengths and weaknesses, the opportunities and the limits of environmental information about products have been investigated in a feasibility study in detail. This article discusses the main challenges facing the provision of meaningful information to direct consumer decisions.As a first step, we evaluate different methodological approaches towards calculating environmental information about products based on life cycle thinking. This shows that a carbon footprint might be insufficient for full environmental information and thus the use of life cycle assessment (LCA) is recommended for this purpose.The level of decision-making addressed by the approach must be considered. It describes which type of decisions is assisted. Here we recommend starting with higher levels of decision-making, i.e. calculating average impacts of product groups and addressing the general differences between these groups. Consumers would thus see the relevance of different buying decisions and could e.g. compare the environmental impacts of travelling with these of food consumption. After that, the approach may be refined and analyses carried out of individual products within a product group.The consideration of the use and end-of-life phases of products is a special issue to be defined within an EPI. These phases may be very important, depending on the type of product. However, the use phase often exhibits major variability, as it is influenced by disparate products and consumer behaviour. Furthermore, the use and final disposal of a product can only partly be influenced by the producer. We think that it is not feasible to systematically include the full life cycle in an EPI. Therefore we recommend that the environmental information should be shown for the product as it is bought in the shop (life cycle from cradle to shop). Thus, the system boundary of the environmental LCA coincides with the system boundary of the price of the product purchased. The impacts of the full life cycle could be shown additionally and separately if they are relevant for the total impact. Consequently it is necessary to show the environmental impacts relative to a functional unit.For the assessment of environmental impacts in Switzerland we suggest using the Swiss ecological scarcity method. The communication of the respective LCA results in a simplified form is another issue to consider. For simplifying communication, the environmental impacts of a product should be related to overall an environmental goal, similar to normalisation. The so-called “eco-time” use can then be applied as an understandable unit in business to consumer communication.There are several obstacles to putting life cycle based environmental information for products into practice. It is questionable whether one particular approach towards environmental product information can serve all kinds of purposes, starting from supporting comparative assertions of different brands of a product offered in a supermarket to comparing different consumption patterns of households. The approach proposed here should help to focus the attention of consumers first on the most important aspects for sustainable consumption.

Measuring and Improving Eco-efficiency Using Data Envelopment Analysis

Summary The concept of eco-efficiency can be defined with the “product value/environmental influence” ratio. Different models have been proposed to measure eco-efficiency. The main difference among them is the weighting system used to aggregate the environmental results. Data envelopment analysis (DEA) permits this aggregation without requiring a subjective judgment about the weights. In this study, we applied a DEA model to Spanish Mah´ on-Menorca cheese production to determine the most eco-efficient production techniques. To this end, 16 scenarios of Mah´ on-Menorca cheese production were built regarding technical (degree of automation) and cleaner production criteria. The environmental impacts were assessed by means of life cycle assessment. We carried out an economic assessment by determining the economic value added and the net income for each scenario. The results are referred to as 1 kilogram (kg) cheese ripened over 105 days. Through DEA, an eco-efficiency ratio between 0 and 1 was obtained. Three scenarios were found to be ecoefficient, with a high degree of automation (enclosed vat and molding and demolding machines) and accelerated cheese ripening.

Life cycle assessment of building materials: Comparative analysis of energy and environmental impacts and evaluation of the eco-efficiency improvement potential

The building industry uses great quantities of raw materials that also involve high energy consumption. Choosing materials with high content in embodied energy entails an initial high level of energy consumption in the building production stage but also determines future energy consumption in order to fulfil heating, ventilation and air conditioning demands. This paper presents the results of an LCA study comparing the most commonly used building materials with some eco-materials using three different impact categories. The aim is to deepen the knowledge of energy and environmental specifications of building materials, analysing their possibilities for improvement and providing guidelines for materials selection in the eco-design of new buildings and rehabilitation of existing buildings. The study proves that the impact of construction products can be significantly reduced by promoting the use of the best techniques available and eco-innovation in production plants, substituting the use of finite natural resources for waste generated in other production processes, preferably available locally. This would stimulate competition between manufacturers to launch more eco-efficient products and encourage the use of the Environmental Product Declarations. This paper has been developed within the framework of the “LoRe-LCA Project” co-financed by the European Commission’s Intelligent Energy for Europe Program and the “PSE CICLOPE Project” co-financed by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology and the European Regional Development Fund.

Eco-Efficient Product Design Using Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ) Principles

Problem statement: In recent years, much attention has been focused on the eco-efficiency of product development. The majority of environmental decisions are only made in the later stages of product development where not much modification can be done. To produce eco-efficient products, environmental decisions ought to be considered in the early stages of product development. With the demand of developing more eco-efficient products, designers are found to be lacking the appropriate design tools and guidelines. Approach: Products were designed to solve problems. Therefore, we suggest the usage of the 40 principles of TRIZ to generate eco-efficient product designs. The 40 principles of TRIZ is one of the fundamental tools of TRIZ. We studied the design features of different water filters, washing machines and power drills to correlate the elements of eco-efficiency and the principles of TRIZ. Results: From the case studies, it was shown that there is a correlation between eco-efficient elements and TRIZ principles in existing products. The information obtained from the product case studies alongside with the study of the individual TRIZ principles resulted in the formation of a new tool. This new tool was called the TRIZEE Design Tool. After that, literature review on the commonly practiced design methodologies were carried out. A new methodology termed TRIZEE Design Methodology was developed. New tools and existing tools were incorporated within this methodology. Conclusion: We proved that there is a correlation between eco-efficient elements and the 40 principles of TRIZ. Through this research, a new design methodology is also formed to that can be a guideline for designers.

Ecobuild a Center for Development of Fully Biobased Material Systems and Furniture Applications

There is a great incentive and motivation in the building and wood research communities as well as in the industry to develop more eco-efficient and durable wood-based products with better performances. In this context, eco-efficient products refer to “green” sustainable products where both economical and ecological aspects have to be balanced. This presentation will give the general strategies within the newly formed Swedish Institute Excellence Center, EcoBuild. The conceptual idea for this competence centre is a conversion of biomass into innovative, eco-efficient and durable wood based products. The vision is that EcoBuild will, through the formation of a university-institute-industry cooperation, act as an international leading innovation, research and technology development platform within the wood science and technology field. The research projects within the centre are guided by a group of about 30 industry partners and also by end-user demands (Fig. 1). Types of materials in focus are: modified solid wood such as heat treated, furfurylated and acetylated wood, biobased binders and coatings, and biocomposites. A top priority is to develop fully biobased products, i.e., all raw materials should preferably be biobased, including chemicals for modification, adhesives, and surface treatment. Aspects and initial results regarding some of the EcoBuild activities will also be presented. Examples of research projects already started are: 1) Novel bio-based board resins; 2) UV-resistant clear coatings for exterior use; 3) Highly durable WPCs for outdoor use based on modified wood particles; 4) Modification of hardwood for exterior applications; 5) Fundamental understanding of the mechanisms involved in the durability of modified wood. FIGURE 1 The integrated research areas within Institute Excellence Center, EcoBuild.

Eco-efficiency analysis of textile coating materials

Eco-efficiency is critical for organisations that seek to be both environmentally conscious and profitable. It helps to “produce more out of less” to avoid wasting natural resources and to reduce emissions and damage to the environment. The textile coating and laminating industry, utilising solvent or water-based polymeric mixtures, is one of the industries coming under extreme environmental pressure to replace traditional procedures and use eco-efficient coating agents. In this study, eco-efficiency analysis was used to compare the eco-effectiveness of two different coating agents, polyacrylate and polyurethane, each in organic solution as well as aqueous dispersion forms. The “ecological fingerprint” and eco-efficiency portfolio were graphically illustrated for these coating agents based on the customer benefit, defined as coating one square meter of a textile fabric in a conventional laminating unit. According to the analysis results, polyacrylate dispersion in water was the most eco-efficient coating agent whilst polyurethane resin dissolved in organic solvent was found as the coating agent with the least acceptability as an eco-efficient product.

Life Cycle Design: from general methods to product type specific guidelines and checklists: a method adopted to develop a set of guidelines/checklist handbook for the eco-efficient design of NECTA vending machines

This paper underlines and debates the importance of developing specific guidelines and checklist per product typology, as tools to make eco-efficient design become a reality. The argumentation is accompanied by the description of a project commissioned by the NECTA Vending Solutions (the European leader of drinks & food vending machines) to the DIS research unit (Design and Innovation for environmental Sustainability, Politecnico di Milano University – The DIS research unit of Politecnico di Milano University is offering, since 10 years, applied researches and company consulting on Life Cycle Design and eco-efficiency improvement. Typical consulting activities are: Life Cycle Assessment; handbook for LCD and eco-efficient product, service and product-service system development; procedure and tools to integrate environmental requirements into company existing product, service and product-service system development process; courses on LCD), resulting in such tools, currently integrated into the company product development process. The considerations are based upon on primary data and experiences. The final results of this project are two handbooks of guidelines and checklists for the eco-efficient development of two types of vending machines: one for Snack & Food (spirals model), the other for Hot & Cold drinks. In order to achieve these results an LCA has been developed and a system to prioritize guidelines has been adopted; this system has led to a procedure which moves from general to specific guidelines and checklist. Finally these tools have been integrated within the company procedure. The method adopted by DIS in this applied research is described, highlighting the observed key success factors in a project between a University research unit and a company. Final considerations expand upon the matured experiences to demonstrate the importance and efficacy to go from general methods and tools to more specific ones (e.g. specific guidelines and checklist), in order to implement Life Cycle Design principles, in the real company practices and culture.

Knowledge-intensive technology in agricultural and rural contexts: relationships with sustainability

Knowledge-intensive technology can contribute a lot to the transformation of agriculture, also in terms of more eco-efficient and nonmaterial production. However, relatively little is known so far on the relationship of the development of ICTs and agriculture/rurality and the environment. This paper discusses key processes of information society that may contribute to the developments about to take place in the agricultural and rural contexts. Relying on evidence from expert interviews, we explore the perceptions of the impacts these processes have on the sustainability of Finnish agriculture. The main result is that the Finnish agricultural and rural experts have a very positive attitude towards the ecological, economic and social development opportunities provided by the trajectories of information society.

Mechanical properties and water vapor transmission in some blends of cassava starch edible films

The continuous increase of consumer interest in quality, convenience and food quality has encouraged further research into edible films and coatings from natural polymers, such as polysaccharides. Ecoefficient products are the new generation of biobased products prepared with sustainable materials, that agree with ecological and economic requirements including environmentally acceptable disposal of post-user waste. The numerous potential applications of natural polymers such as polysaccharides stimulated the study with edible films based on cassava starch. Blends of glycerol (GLY) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) as plasticizers, and glutaraldehyde (GLU) as crosslinking agent were prepared in order to determine the mechanical properties and water vapor transmission of those films. A response surface methodology was applied on the results to identify the blend with the best mechanical properties and lowest water vapor transmission. The crosslinking effect of glutaraldehyde in the films can be observed. The plasticizing action of polyethylene glycol was restrained by more than 0.5 g of glutataraldehyde. The use of glycerol was less evident for this property even after 284 h of contact time with water vapor.

Sustainable Bio-Composites from Renewable Resources: Opportunities and Challenges in the Green Materials World

Sustainability, industrial ecology, eco-efficiency, and green chemistry are guiding the development of the next generation of materials, products, and processes. Biodegradable plastics and bio-based polymer products based on annually renewable agricultural and biomass feedstock can form the basis for a portfolio of sustainable, eco-efficient products that can compete and capture markets currently dominated by products based exclusively on petroleum feedstock. Natural/Biofiber composites (Bio-Composites) are emerging as a viable alternative to glass fiber reinforced composites especially in automotive and building product applications. The combination of biofibers such as kenaf, hemp, flax, jute, henequen, pineapple leaf fiber, and sisal with polymer matrices from both nonrenewable and renewable resources to produce composite materials that are competitive with synthetic composites requires special attention, i.e., biofiber–matrix interface and novel processing. Natural fiber–reinforced polypropylene composites have attained commercial attraction in automotive industries. Natural fiber—polypropylene or natural fiber—polyester composites are not sufficiently eco-friendly because of the petroleum-based source and the nonbiodegradable nature of the polymer matrix. Using natural fibers with polymers based on renewable resources will allow many environmental issues to be solved. By embedding biofibers with renewable resource–based biopolymers such as cellulosic plastics; polylactides; starch plastics; polyhydroxyalkanoates (bacterial polyesters); and soy-based plastics, the so-called green bio-composites are continuously being developed.

Are we chasing our tail in the pursuit of sustainability?

People are urged to change their pattern of consumption and lifestyle in a more environment-friendly direction. More eco-efficient products and production are also developed. But when governments strive to promote economic growth, consumers may be urged to consume more to cure or prevent a stagnating economy. Here is an obvious contradiction. Gains in eco-efficiency are likely to be annihilated by greater consumption - the so-called rebound effect - resulting in an increased throughput in the economy. This paper takes a look at various means to handle the economic surplus in order to avoid or balance this effect. Environmental policies (including such measures as green taxes) may redirect consumption from one kind to another, but this demands that the alternative spending is less harmful than the one dissuaded. Other possibilities tested are to alter the sector mix of the economy and work-sharing to match the increasing efficiency.

ELDA and EVCA: Tools for building product End-of-Life Strategy

Classifying products based on their 'end of life' strategies early in design leads to improved eco-efficient product and processes. This paper describes the development of an internet-based tool, End-of-Life Design Advisor (ELDA), that guides product developers to appropriate end-of-life strategies. The tool identifys suitable product end-of-life strategies for a broad range of products early in the design cycle. This paper also describes the application of Environmental Value Chain Analysis (EVCA) to product end-of-life systems. EVCA examines the information, money and product flows between the players e.g. producers, government, consumers and recyclers. By analysing the value chains of existing product end-of-life systems, valuable lessons can be learned into how to improve take-back and recycling systems. ELDA and EVCA, in combination examine the existing end-of-life system and, identify the appropriate end-of-life strategy, provide roadmaps for future work. Knowing the possible end-of-life strategy aids product designers in providing the design that is most eco-efficient for the end-of-life stage. The two tools ELDA and EVCA used in combination can help.

Eco-efficiency gains from remanufacturing: A case study of photocopier remanufacturing at Fuji Xerox Australia

Achieving eco-efficient production and consumption systems requires ‘closing the loop’ to create cyclic systems. Product systems based on remanufacturing, where used products or components are restored to ‘as new’ condition for reuse, offer the potential to create such cyclic systems. For some existing manufacturers, the economic efficiency of remanufacturing is clear and it has become a widely held assumption that such systems would also be more eco-efficient. However, this assumption has not been systematically tested. This research attempted to quantify the life cycle environmental benefits achieved by incorporating remanufacturing into a product system, based on a study of Xerox photocopiers in Australia. The study found that remanufacturing can reduce resource consumption and waste generation over the life cycle of a photocopier by up to a factor of 3, with greatest reductions if a product is designed for disassembly and remanufacturing. This research represents a first-level assessment, limited by certain estimates and assumptions. It is intended that this research will form the basis of a larger, more detailed study of Xerox remanufacturing, worldwide.

PRODUCT END-OF-LIFE STRATEGY CATEGORIZATION DESIGN TOOL

Prediction of end-of-life strategies early in design leads to improved eco-efficient product and processes. This paper describes the development of an internet-based tool, End-of-Life Design Advisor (ELDA), that guides product developers to specify appropriate end-of-life strategies. The study began with surveys of end-of-life strategies currently used in the electronics industry that identified key product characteristics that influence end-of-life strategies. The survey led to a scheme for identifying suitable product end-of-life strategies early in the design cycle of a broad range of products. The end-of-life strategy categorization in ELDA is a result of statistical analysis applied to 12 characteristics across 20 products. The tool aids product designers, recycling technology developers, and policy makers.