European Ecosystems Research Articles

Intra-guild competition and ecosystem services of mammal scavengers in a new colonized wolf landscape

Carcass utilization by scavengers is crucial for ecosystem dynamics, influencing energy transfer and nutrient cycling. Through the provision of unconsumed carcasses, the return of wolves (Canis lupus) to European ecosystems can trigger complex cascading effects on scavenger communities. Here, we investigate the scavenging dynamics of mammalian species in a prey-rich Mediterranean coastal area close to a large city where wolves have recently returned. Using camera traps, we monitored the scavenging activity on fallow deer (Dama dama) carcasses preyed upon by wolves over a five-year period following the predator’s return. We developed models to assess how competition between red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), wild boars (Sus scrofa), and wolves evolved over time, focusing on their carcass use, direct interactions, and spatiotemporal associations. Wolves exhibited consumption of only minor portions of prey and a negligible reuse of carcasses, while foxes and wild boars engaged in indirect competition for access to this emerging trophic niche. We found a notable temporal change in scavenging activity over the monitoring period, with wild boars progressively emerging as the primary scavenger and providing a substantial removal of carcass biomass. Our findings suggest that wild boars can assume a prominent scavenging role in environments where carcass availability is both abundant and predictable. This study underscores the importance of understanding scavenger temporal dynamics in the context of apex predator recolonization and highlights the need for further research to explore the long-term impacts of these interactions on community structure and ecosystem services as wolf populations continue to expand across Europe.

Timing of Drought and Severity of Induced Leaf Desiccation Affect Recovery, Growth and Autumnal Leaf Senescence in Fagus sylvatica L. Saplings

Increased water limitations due to climate change will pose severe challenges to forest ecosystems in Europe. We investigated the response of potted saplings of Fagus sylvatica L., one of the major European tree species, to a spring and a summer water-withholding period with control–control (C-C), control–drought (C-D), drought–control (D-C) and drought–drought (D-D) treatments. We focused on recovery capacity and phenological and growth traits and questioned the extent to which an earlier drought influenced the response to a second drought in the same growing season. To examine the impact of the level of drought stress, a distinction was made between saplings with less or more than half of their leaves desiccated due to the spring drought (D<50 and D>50). The timing of the drought influenced the immediate post-drought response: saplings severely affected by the spring drought (D>50) resprouted, whereas saplings severely affected by the summer drought (C-D and D<50-D) did not. The spring treatment influenced the onset of visual symptoms in the summer drought, with saplings less affected in the spring drought (D<50-D) developing symptoms three days later than the saplings not subjected to drought in the spring (C-D), whereas severely affected saplings (D>50-D) had not yet display symptoms seventeen days after the first visual symptoms in the spring control saplings (C-D). The timing of autumnal leaf senescence displayed the legacies of the spring treatment. The saplings heavily affected by the spring drought showed a slower decrease in relative chlorophyll content and delayed leaf senescence (D>50-C and D>50-D), which may enable the repair of damaged tissues. The saplings that were less affected by the spring drought (D<50-C) showed earlier autumnal leaf senescence, which is likely an acclimation response. Interestingly, a larger diameter increment in autumn for all of the saplings that experienced the summer drought (C-D, D<50-D and D>50-D) may indicate the recovery of hydraulic capacity by new xylem growth. Our results underline the plasticity of young F. sylvatica saplings in response to (repeated) drought.

Genomic Data Support the Revision of Provenance Regions Delimitation for Scots Pine.

Scots pine is a crucial component of ecosystems in Europe and Asia and a major utility species that comprises more than 60% of total forest production in Poland. Despite its importance, the genetic relationships between key conservation and the commercial value of Scots pine ecotypes in Poland remain unclear. To address this problem, we analyzed 27 populations (841 trees) of the most valuable Polish Scots pine ecotypes, including the oldest natural stands in all 24 regions of provenance established for the species in the country. By examining maternally inherited mitochondrial markers, nuclear microsatellite loci, and thousands of SNP markers from a genotyping array, we evaluated the genetic structure between and within them. These multilevel genomic data revealed high genetic similarity and a homogeneous structure in most populations, suggesting a common historical origin and admixture of populations after the postglacial recolonization of Central Europe. This research presents novel data on existing genomic resources among local ecotypes defined within strictly managed Polish regions of provenance, challenging their validity. Formal tests of the progeny of seed stands are needed to check whether the diversity in adaptation and quantitative traits still supports the delineation of provenance regions. In parallel, the health status of selected populations and the viability of seeds from these regions should be monitored to detect early-stage symptoms of their environmental stress. It seems reasonable that periodic shortages of forest reproductive material (FRM) in a given region of provenance could be supplemented with the one from other regions that match their climatic envelope. Together, our results have important implications for the management of native Scots pine stands, particularly elite breeding populations, as they contribute to the discussion of the boundaries of provenance regions and the transfers of FRM that face increasing climate change.

Influence of Human Hunting Strategies and Large Carnivore Presence on Population Dynamics of European Facultative Scavengers.

Ungulates serve as the primary carrion source for facultative scavengers in European ecosystems. In the absence of large carnivores, such as wolves (Canis lupus), human hunting leftovers are the main source of carrion for these scavengers. Additionally, wild boars (Sus scrofa) are heavily culled in many ecosystems and are both a significant prey species for wolves as well as a key scavenger. Nowadays, wolves and wild boars are re-establishing their historical home ranges. However, it remains unclear how their presence influences the population dynamics of facultative scavengers under different scenarios of human hunting strategies. We simulated the biomass densities of all states in the trophic web including European scavengers and wolves using an ordinary differential equations (ODE) model. The presence of wolves led to a positive trend in scavenger biomass in general. However, in general, we found that plant-based resources were more important for scavenger dynamics than carrion, regardless of whether the carrion originated from human hunting or wolf predation. Only when wolves were absent but boars present, the human hunting strategy became important in determining scavenger dynamics via carrion supply. In conclusion, our model indicates that population dynamics of facultative scavengers are not mainly driven by the availability of carrion, but rather by the presence of and competition for vegetation. Furthermore, our simulations highlight the importance of adapting human hunting strategies in accordance with the re-establishment of wolf and boar as these can cause fluctuating population patterns over the years.

A habitat is not enough - increasing the chances of success for species reintroduction in riverscapes by habitat modeling and connectivity analysis

Alpine rivers are among the most heavily modified ecosystems in Europe. Following massive interventions in the 18th and 19th centuries, many plant species specialized in these challenging environments declined and are now endangered or even locally extinct. Today, attempts are being made to reintroduce these species as part of restoration measures, but only a few are successful. The selection of potential sites for reintroduction is commonly intuitive and based on practical considerations, while a prior scientific assessment of habitat availability and habitat connectivity is lacking. To increase the success of future reintroductions, we employ a habitat suitability model and subsequent habitat connectivity analysis to identify promising regions and patches for reintroduction within a riverscape. We demonstrate this approach using the Alpine river specialists Chondrilla chondrilloides and Myricaria germanica in three differently degraded and one restored section of the large Alpine river Isar. All river sections provide habitats for both species, but with increasing degradation, habitats become fewer and less connected. For the species with a narrower habitat niche and lower dispersal ability, suitable and connected patches that support a self-sustained metapopulation are only found in the near-natural sections. Despite an improvement in the habitat situation, the patch size in the restored section is too small, and the patches are too scattered to support a successful reintroduction of the species. We show that this evidence-based approach outperforms an intuitive selection of out-planting sites. The results further underline the importance of using scientific habitat analysis to increase the success of reintroduction measures.

Financing green innovation startups: a systematic literature review on early-stage SME funding

ABSTRACT This paper investigates the critical issue of financing early-stage green startups, examining the types of investors and finance models available, the challenges these startups face, and how the green finance ecosystem can better support early-stage investment. Utilizing a systematic literature review (SLR) methodology, we provide a comprehensive analysis of the current landscape. Our findings reveal a significant paucity of data and a bias towards well-established North American and European ecosystems, while highlighting an emerging diversity in private finance sources post-Global financial crisis (GFC), including grants, equity, and crowdfunding. Despite this, there remains a heavy reliance on public funding and a lack of evidence regarding its impact. The inherent characteristics of cleantech – high capital expenditure, long investment horizons, and disruptive nature – necessitate innovative public financing instruments and policies to reduce risk and attract private investment. Our theoretical contribution highlights the necessity for interdisciplinary research and policy collaboration to develop a holistic entrepreneurial finance (entfin) ecosystem. This approach should integrate quantitative economic and qualitative behavioural finance research to address information asymmetries and improve the green economy policy mix. Such a framework will support public-private co-financing, enhance stakeholder engagement, and provide evidence for policy decisions, facilitating more rapid commercialization of cleantech innovations for environmental sustainability.

Site conditions rather than provenance drive tree growth, climate sensitivity and drought responses in European beech in Germany

Ongoing climate change and associated extreme events strongly impact the growth and vitality of forest ecosystems in Europe. Because of its’ high drought sensitivity, European beech, which is considered as climax tree species in large parts of Central Europe, may specifically suffer. Hence, recent studies increasingly focus on the resistance and resilience of beech growth to climate change. Intra-specific variations in growth responses by comparing different beech provenances, however, received less attention, as did the question whether provenance selection can be used to mitigate potential future negative impacts of climate change. Therefore, we here investigated 24 provenances belonging to the International Beech Provenance Trial growing at three sites in Germany along a latitudinal gradient (study sites are referred to as ’North’, ‘Center’, ‘South’). Specifically, we compared tree-ring width (TRW), diameter breast height (DBH), climate-growth relationships, as well as drought resistance and resilience in the extreme years 2003 and 2018. Large differences in growth performance were observed between the three study sites. At site North, beech trees showed the highest DBH and TRW. Tree growth was predominantly driven by previous-year October and current-year winter temperature, whereas growth at sites Center and South was significantly impacted by summer SPEI and constrained by precipitation in late winter and early June, respectively. Overall, drought responses in 2003 were less variable than in 2018. We found increasing resistance and decreasing resilience from the wetter North to the drier South, but with minimal differences between the Center and the South. Whereas differences between study sites were large, provenance differentiation within sites was comparably low, substantiating that beech is a highly plastic tree species. Even though some provenances were found to perform slightly better or worse, differences were not statistically significant and show unclear patterns. Hence, we conclude that climate change will affect beech forests in Europe mainly depending upon site conditions, and that provenance selection may not ensure superior growth performance.

Collaboration for new therapies: maximizing health and innovation.

Innovative medicines and vaccines can provide direct health benefits to patients and populations by preventing, treating and curing diseases, and also drive wider socioeconomic and productivity gains. However, researching and developing them is complex and risky. Funding for life sciences R&D has different sources: public, charitable/NGO, and private sector. We believe there is consensus that all are required, although there is less understanding about their respective roles, synergies, and funding priorities. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the current life sciences innovation ecosystem in Europe, highlighting challenges for funding and innovation of new therapies and our proposed options to address these. The basis of this paper stems from the reflections made by the co-authors during a webinar with title "Collaboration for new therapies: maximising funding and innovation," in March 2023, with further targeted literature reviews. We identify eight challenges in the European life sciences ecosystem, some closely related, and nine options that we think might be helpful to address them. Each option on its own can have different levels of 'impact', but collectively will provide synergies among them, and thus maximize their impact. It is critical to ascertain how the strengths of each actor can be leveraged to bring new medicines/treatments to market, quicker and more efficiently. We need a trusted environment, with strategic collaborations between the public and private sectors, and policy initiatives and incentives should be targeted to strengthen the infrastructure with the aim of fostering such optimal alliances.

Possibilities for reproduction and archiving resulting in a clone collection of a unique grey poplar (Populus × canescens Aiton Sm.) population in the Czech Republic

Abstract Floodplain forests as one of the most endangered ecosystems in Europe have recently been impacted by fungal pathogens Phytophtora sp. and Hymenoscyphus fraxineus (chalara). Grey poplar (Populus × canescens Aiton Sm.) can be used as one of well adapted tree species for the reforestation of withering stands of ash (Fraxinus sp.). A unique population of grey poplar (Populus × canescens Aiton Sm.) characterized by desirable phenotypic traits was used for this purpose. The gender distribution was asymmetric; out of 155 individuals, 113 were female. Out of 33 different genotypes determined in the population, 15 were used as a source of approved forest reproductive material. Vegetative reproduction methods (ex situ clonal reproduction by micropropagation and cuttings) were developed and used, to rapidly initiate the recovery of forest stands of grey poplar. In total, 940 explants were successfully micropropagated and adapted to natural conditions, to ensure a genetically diverse source of viable plants used for reforestation. Moreover, we used methodological procedures of micropropagation for setting up cryopreservation technique. With respect to long-term storage of valuable grey poplar genotypes, modulation of gene expression by cold hardening during cryopreservation revealed significant changes in a few candidate genes involved in plant cellular processes.

Detection of novel orthoparamyxoviruses, orthonairoviruses and an orthohepevirus in European white-toothed shrews.

While the viromes and immune systems of bats and rodents have been extensively studied, comprehensive data are lacking for insectivores (order Eulipotyphla) despite their wide geographic distribution. Anthropogenic land use and outdoor recreational activities, as well as changes in the range of shrews, may lead to an expansion of the human-shrew interface with the risk of spillover infections, as reported for Borna disease virus 1. We investigated the virome of 45 individuals of 4 white-toothed shrew species present in Europe, using metagenomic RNA sequencing of tissue and intestine pools. Moderate to high abundances of sequences related to the families Paramyxoviridae, Nairoviridae, Hepeviridae and Bornaviridae were detected. Whole genomes were determined for novel orthoparamyxoviruses (n=3), orthonairoviruses (n=2) and an orthohepevirus. The novel paramyxovirus, tentatively named Hasua virus, was phylogenetically related to the zoonotic Langya virus and Mòjiāng virus. The novel orthonairoviruses, along with the potentially zoonotic Erve virus, fall within the shrew-borne Thiafora virus genogroup. The highest viral RNA loads of orthoparamyxoviruses were detected in the kidneys, in well-perfused organs for orthonairoviruses and in the liver and intestine for orthohepevirus, indicating potential transmission routes. Notably, several shrews were found to be coinfected with viruses from different families. Our study highlights the virus diversity present in shrews, not only in biodiversity-rich regions but also in areas influenced by human activity. This study warrants further research to characterize and assess the clinical implications and risk of these viruses and the importance of shrews as reservoirs in European ecosystems.

Invasion in cold: weather effects on winter activity of an alien mesopredator at its northern range

Whether an invasive species thrives in cold ecosystems depends on its response to winter weather. A potential threat to these ecosystems in Europe is the invasive raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides). The survival of this mesopredator is supported in cold weather, because it can periodically use winter sleep, but its winter activity levels compared to native mesopredators remain unclear. We investigated the winter behaviour of raccoon dogs in Finland, near the edge of their invasion front, and compared their activity to native red foxes and badgers. Using wildlife cameras, we found that raccoon dogs do reduce activity during the coldest months, but camera observations did not strongly correlate with temperature perhaps due to feeding at camera sites. That is, artificial food sources may have increased raccoon dogs’ winter activity. Nevertheless, they responded more clearly to temperature drops than red foxes, but were more active than badgers that were mostly dormant and thus absent from our data. GPS-tracked raccoon dogs remained at some level active through winter, even near subarctic regions, but the cold and snowy weather clearly decreased activity and individuals stayed close to their nests during the coldest periods. Overall, these findings suggest that raccoon dogs can maintain some winter activity even in extremely cold environments, and they readily exploit human-provided resources. This potential ability to thrive in cold regions highlights the invasive potential of raccoon dogs. As winters become milder due to climate change, their numbers could increase significantly within cold-adapted ecosystems, impacting native species and posing conservation challenges.

Turbidity effects on prey consumption and survival of larval European smelt (Osmerus eperlanus)

The anadromous European smelt (Osmerus eperlanus) plays a key role in food webs of many riverine ecosystems in Europe. However, population sizes in several German rivers (e.g. Elbe or Weser rivers) have diminished drastically over the past decade. Turbidity has been considered one of the stressors affecting the successful recruitment of European smelt, as their early life stages may be particularly sensitive to changes in the abiotic environment. In this study, we investigated whether prey consumption and survival of European smelt larvae would be negatively affected by an acute exposure to elevated turbidity. We reared the larvae in the laboratory and exposed them in four separate trials (18 to 26 days post hatch, 9.5 ± 0.8 mm standard length, mean ± SD) to six turbidity levels (0–500 NTU, nephelometric turbidity units). We found that prey uptake increased at low turbidity levels and decreased at high turbidity levels, with an optimum between 100 and 200 NTU. Survival started to decrease at turbidity levels above 300 NTU. In addition, we conducted a systematic literature analysis in which we found that prey consumption of larval and juvenile fishes had been tested across a wide range of turbidity levels, mostly using pelagic (e.g. planktonic) prey items, with more studies focusing on perciform fishes and juvenile rather than larval life stages. Our empirical findings contribute to establishing thresholds for optimal larval European smelt performance under increased turbidity and provide valuable information for developing mechanistic models that assess potential consequences for European smelt recruitment dynamics.

Chemical Treatments on Invasive Bivalve, Corbicula fluminea.

The Asian clam Corbicula fluminea is a native aquatic species in Eastern Asia and Africa but has become one of the ecologically and economically harmful invasive species in aquatic ecosystems in Europe, North America, and South America. Due to their natural characteristics as a hermaphroditic species with a high fecundity and dispersal capacity, Asian clams are extremely difficult to eradicate once they have infiltrated a waterbody. This is an emerging issue for states in the Northeastern United States, as Asian clams expand their range farther North due to climate change. There has been extensive research conducted to develop chemical treatments for reactively controlling invasive mollusc populations and proactively preventing their further spread. However, treatments are mostly targeted toward biofouling bivalves in industrial settings. A comprehensive review of Asian clam chemical treatments used in natural open-water systems was performed to evaluate molluscicides and identify the toxicity ranges of emerging treatments that maximize Asian clam mortality and minimize the negative impact on water quality and non-target species. The potential chemical applications in Asian clam control and management are summarized in this report to assist resource managers and practitioners in invasive Asian clam management.

Caught in the web: Exploring spider predation on bats in Europe.

The intricate interplay between predators and prey has long fascinated ecologists, with bats and their diverse prey offering insight into co-evolutionary dynamics. While bats have evolved sophisticated strategies for prey capture, they also face predation pressure. Among their predators, spiders stand out for their diversity of predatory tactics, ranging from hunting assaults and web ensnarement to the deployment of venom. Yet, bat predation records by spiders are mostly from tropical regions, and cases remain notably scarce in temperate regions. Here, we report four new incidences of bat predation and mortality by spiders and their webs in Europe. Our observations include detailed photograph and video documentation of the first record of a spider capturing and consuming a bat pup in Spain, as well as accounts of bats entangled in spider webs on a building and inside bat boxes in the United Kingdom. These findings shed light on understudied predator-prey dynamics, offering valuable insights into spider predation on bats in European ecosystems. Our study emphasises the importance of continued research to improve our understanding of ecological interactions between these elusive and primarily nocturnal taxa.

Do recolonising wolves trigger non‐consumptive effects in European ecosystems? A review of evidence

Predators can affect ecosystems through non‐consumptive effects (NCE) on their prey, which can lead to cascading effects on the vegetation. In mammalian communities, such cascading effects on whole ecosystems have mainly been demonstrated in protected areas, but the extent to which such effects may occur in more human‐dominated landscapes remains disputable. With the recolonisation of wolves Canis lupus in Europe, understanding the potential for such cascading processes becomes crucial for understanding the ecological consequences of wolf recovery and making appropriate management recommendations. Here, we investigate the evidence for non‐consumptive effects of wolves on their wild ungulate prey and cascading effects on the vegetation in European landscapes. We reviewed empirical studies reporting wild ungulate responses to wolves involving spatio‐temporal behaviour at large and fine spatial scales, activity patterns, vigilance, grouping, physiological effects, and effects on the vegetation. We reveal that non‐consumptive effects of wolves in Europe have been studied in few regions and with focus on regions with low human impact, are highly context‐dependent, and might often be overruled by human‐related factors. Hence, we highlight the need for a description of human influence in NCE studies. We discuss challenges in NCE research and the potential for advances in future research on NCE of wolves in a human‐dominated landscape. We emphasise the need for wildlife management to restore ecosystem complexity and processes, to allow non‐consumptive predator effects to occur.

Bonding properties of selected alien invasive wood species

Invasive alien plant species pose a significant challenge to European ecosystems. They displace native vegetation, damage agricultural land, and annually cost the European economy billions of euros. Many of them are removed daily and mainly burned, although some of them produce lignocellulosic material that could be used in place of native wood species. In this study, the bonding properties of selected invasive wood species in Slovenia were tested using standard methods. Wood lamellas were produced according to the SIST EN 205 standard from Ailanthus altissima, Aesculus hippocastanum, Robinia pseudoacacia, Gleditsia triacanthos and Acer negundo and glued with polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) and one-component polyurethane (PU) adhesive. The results showed that selected wood species can be bonded well with both adhesives (bond shear strengths from 7.2 to 15.1 N/mm2), although there were large variations due to the heterogeneity of the wood material. The differences in the shear strength of the bonds were mainly due to the different densities of the wood (479 to 702 kg/m3) species and the high variability in material properties (for example porosity from 0.54 to 0.68 and shear strength in tangential direction from 11.2 to 21.1 N/mm2), which are related to the anatomical characteristics of the individual wood species.

Proposed spatial decision support system for delineating ecological corridors in green infrastructure planning constrained by lack of data: a case study in Galicia, Spain

In response to the constant loss of biodiversity in European ecosystems, which is partly due to the impacts of climate change, the European Commission urges member states to include Green Infrastructure (GI) in their land-use plans. However, although the European Commission establishes the fundamental principles to be applied, the ambiguity of some terms generates a certain degree of complexity regarding the delineation of GI elements, especially Ecological Corridors (ECs). Thus, a straightforward methodology for delineating GI elements is required. Here, we propose a Spatial Decision Support System (SDSS) that could help non-expert planners identify areas with a high potential to function as ECs and that could thus facilitate the inclusion of these areas in regional GI plans. Probability distribution maps were constructed by fitting a maximum entropy model (MaxEnt) to publicly available data on selected focal species. The maps were combined with other variables that negatively affect species mobility and later inserted in a graph theory tool to determine the least-cost path that would serve as the basis for delineating ECs. The method was applied to the design of an EC network in Galicia (NW Spain), and use of the system as a tool to help spatial decision-making was evaluated. Despite some limitations, the method yielded promising results that could help non-expert planners to establish the basis for delineating EC networks and other GI elements.

A pan-European fraud taxonomy : Do you speak fraud?

Understanding the myriad activities of fraudsters, and finding effective measures to rapidly counteract them, continues to be a vexing problem for payment service providers (PSPs) — a challenge that is being intensified by the move to a 24/7/365 and real-time payments environment. To strengthen the fraud detection and prevention tools available to PSPs, there are growing efforts within the industry to create a pan-European ecosystem for sharing fraud data and intelligence, facilitated by regulatory and legislative developments. To ensure that the benefits of these new tools can be fully reaped, this paper argues that there is a need for PSPs to get their own houses in order by harmonising the fragmented fraud terminologies and internal reporting requirements in practice today. By leveraging the Euro Banking Association (EBA) Fraud Taxonomy — a common pan-European vocabulary for fraud categorisation — PSPs can ensure their data are not just comparable across the European ecosystem, but also granular and actionable. This paper contends that the move to this pan-European fraud taxonomy will serve as a foundational step in the introduction of fraud data sharing solutions.

Digital Innovation Hubs and portfolio of their services across European economies

Research background: Digital ecosystems in Europe are heterogenous organizations involving different economies, industries, and contexts. Among them, Digital Innovation Hubs (DIHs) are considered a policy-driven organization fostered by the European Commission to push companies’ digital transition through a wide portfolio of supporting services. Purpose of the article: There are DIHs existing in all European economies, but literature needs more precise indications about their status and nature. The purpose is to study a distribution of DIHs and differences in portfolios of DIHs’ services across European economies. Therefore, the paper wants to deliver more precise data on effects on national and European policies. This is required to define their final role and scope in the complex dynamics of the digital transition, depending on regional context and heterogeneity of industries. Methods: Data on 38 economies was collected from the S3 platform (on both existing and in preparation DIHs) and further verified by native speaking researchers using manual web scrapping of websites of DIHs identified from S3. To find potential similarities of digital ecosystems in different economies as emanated by the existence of DIHs, clusterization (Ward’s method and Euclidean distances) was applied according to the services offered. Economies were clustered according to the number of DIHs and the spread of DIHs intensity in different cities. The results were further analyzed according to the scope of the provided services. Findings & value added: The applied clustering classified European economies in four different sets, according to the types of services offered by the DIHs. These sets are expression of the different digitalization statuses and strategies of the selected economies and, as such, the services a company can benefit from in a specific economy. Potential development-related reasons behind the data-driven clustering are then conjectured and reported, to guide companies and policy makers in their digitalization strategies.

One hundred priority questions for advancing seagrass conservation in Europe

Societal Impact StatementSeagrass ecosystems are of fundamental importance to our planet and wellbeing. Seagrasses are marine flowering plants, which engineer ecosystems that provide a multitude of ecosystem services, for example, blue foods and carbon sequestration. Seagrass ecosystems have largely been degraded across much of their global range. There is now increasing interest in the conservation and restoration of these systems, particularly in the context of the climate emergency and the biodiversity crisis. The collation of 100 questions from experts across Europe could, if answered, improve our ability to conserve and restore these systems by facilitating a fundamental shift in the success of such work.SummarySeagrass meadows provide numerous ecosystem services including biodiversity, coastal protection, and carbon sequestration. In Europe, seagrasses can be found in shallow sheltered waters along coastlines, in estuaries & lagoons, and around islands, but their distribution has declined. Factors such as poor water quality, coastal modification, mechanical damage, overfishing, land‐sea interactions, climate change and disease have reduced the coverage of Europe’s seagrasses necessitating their recovery. Research, monitoring and conservation efforts on seagrass ecosystems in Europe are mostly uncoordinated and biased towards certain species and regions, resulting in inadequate delivery of critical information for their management. Here, we aim to identify the 100 priority questions, that if addressed would strongly advance seagrass monitoring, research and conservation in Europe. Using a Delphi method, researchers, practitioners, and policymakers with seagrass experience from across Europe and with diverse seagrass expertise participated in the process that involved the formulation of research questions, a voting process and an online workshop to identify the final list of the 100 questions. The final list of questions covers areas across nine themes: Biodiversity & Ecology; Ecosystem services; Blue carbon; Fishery support; Drivers, Threats, Resilience & Response; Monitoring & Assessment; Conservation & Restoration; Governance, Policy & Management; and Communication. Answering these questions will fill current knowledge gaps and place European seagrass onto a positive trajectory of recovery.