Eco-geographical Areas Research Articles

The Animal Origin of Major Human Infectious Diseases: What Can Past Epidemics Teach Us About Preventing the Next Pandemic?

Emerging infectious diseases are one of the greatest public health challenges. Approximately three-quarters of these diseases are of animal origin. These diseases include classical zoonoses maintained in humans only via transmission from other vertebrates (e.g., rabies) and those initiated by a successful one-off zoonotic event (host-switch) in conjunction with efficient human-to-human transmission (e.g., H1N1 influenza). Here, we provide a systematic review, in conjunction with a meta-analysis and spatial risk modeling, to identify the major characteristics of past epidemics of animal origin and predict areas with high future disease emergence risk. Countermeasures against future pandemics of animal origin must focus on several key mechanisms. First, the eco-epidemiological contexts favoring spillover events must be clearly establish. Second, pathogen surveillance must be scaled up, particularly in taxa and/or eco-geographic areas with high disease emergence risk. Third, successful spillover risk must be mitigated through proactive strategies to interrupt animal-to-human transmission chains. Fourth, to decrease epidemic potential and prevent epidemics from becoming pandemics, improved source identification and real-time spatial tracking of diseases are crucial. Finally, because pandemics do not respect international borders, enhancing international collaboration is critical to improving preparedness and response.

Divergence of VRN-B3 alleles during the evolution of domesticated wheat.

Genetic changes accrued during the domestication of wheat have been crucial in improving the cultivation and yield of this strategic crop. Allelic variation at the VRN3 gene makes a significant contribution to the adaptability of wheat to a wide range of environmental conditions. In the present study, the origin and distribution of the Vrn-B3a and Vrn-B3b alleles during the evolution of wheat were investigated. Analysis of 214 accessions of 11 polyploid wheat species from different eco-geographical areas found the Vrn-B3a and Vrn-B3b alleles in accessions of tetraploid wheat T. dicoccum from Russia and hexaploid wheat of T. spelta from Iran, respectively. DNA sequence analysis of an insertion in the Vrn-B3b promoter region identified a new family of non-autonomous transposable hAT elements that originated in T. urartu lineage. Publicly available whole genome sequence assemblies of 11 T. aestivum and T. durum varieties, as well as WGS of T. dicoccoides were used to investigate the phylogeny and distribution of the TEs inserted in the Vrn-B3a and Vrn-B3b promoter regions, to determine the origin of these alleles. Results showed that both Vrn-B3a and Vrn-B3b diverged during the domestication of wheat, in the T. dicoccum lineage. However, while Vrn-B3a is common in T. dicoccum and T. durum from Ukraine and Russia the Vrn-B3b allele likely has a more recent origin in hexaploid wheat from the Near East.

English

Characterization of landraces is central to any conservation measures devised for sweet potato in Malawi. Studies were therefore conducted using seven morphological descriptors and farmers’ indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) to investigate the phenotypical diversity of 286 landraces and 35 introductions of sweet potato from the north, south east and lower Shire. The accessions were planted in a check plot design at Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station. The results showed that farmers’ knowledge (IKS) is a means for preliminary characterization of accessions as evidenced by elimination of 75 duplicate accessions by 12 farmers. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that all accessions and populations were phenotypically variable (p≤0.01) and Chi-square test of the morphological descriptors used in the study varied significantly among the three eco-geographical areas and among the landraces and introductions (p≤0.05 and p≤0.01), implying high variability of the accessions. However, the accessions clustered at 50% dissimilarity and generally irrespective of eco-geographical origin, signifying some similarity probably due to gene flow. Shannon Weaver Diversity Index (H’) indicated that different traits had different source areas of highest diversity which were significantly different (p≤0.05); nonetheless Shire Valley had the highest mean diversity for all traits (H’=0.67) which was significantly different from the other two populations (p≤0.05) inferring that the lower shire would be ideal for in situ conservation of sweet potato diversity. Key words: Field evaluation, germplasm, phenotype, population, root crop, variability.

MORPHOMETRIC COMPARISON BETWEEN WESTERN, EASTERN DESERTS AND SINAI POPULATIONS OF MESOSTENA ANGUSTATA (COLEOPTERA: TENEBRIONIDAE) IN EGYPT

The aim of this study was to compare morphometric measurements of different populations of Mesostena angustata in Egypt. A multivariate comparison of morphometric differences was undertaken by eyepiece micrometer on 8 different ecogeographical areas from Egypt fall under Western Desert, El Faiyum Depression, Eastern Desert and South Sinai. Twenty-one morphometric measurements were taken. Traits best corresponding to the distinction of populations were distinguished by cluster analysis and the principal component analysis. The first and second principle component axes (PC1 and PC2) recorded 34.29% and 14.36%, respectively, of the total variation in samples. Multiple discriminant analysis revealed clear morphometric differences between Western Desert, El Faiyum Depression, Eastern Desert and South Sinai populations. Traits explaining most of variability between populations were those connected with morphological measurements.

Allelic variation at the VERNALIZATION-A1, VRN-B1, VRN-B3, and PHOTOPERIOD-A1 genes in cultivars of Triticum durum Desf.

The durum wheat varieties from Ukraine, Russia, and Kazakhstan are characterized by the specific allelic composition of the VRN genes that sharply distinguish them from the Triticum durum varieties from other countries. For numerous varieties, the VRN alleles which previously were not found in tetraploid wheat were identified. The ability of wheat to adapt to a wide range of environmental conditions is mostly determined by the allelic diversity within genes regulating the vernalization requirement (VRN) and photoperiod response (PPD). In the present study, allelic variation in the VRN1, VRN3, and PPD-A1 genes was investigated for 134 varieties of Triticum durum from different eco-geographic areas. It was shown that varieties from Russia and Ukraine have a specific allelic composition at the VRN genes, which in quantity and quality differed from European and American cultivars. A large number of varieties of T. durum from Russia carry the dominant Vrn-A1a.1 allele, previously identified mainly in hexaploid wheat. For some varieties from Eastern Europe and Asia, Vrn-A1i and vrn-A1b.3 recently revealed in wheat were also identified. Polymorphism of the VRN-B1 promoter region, distinguishing all three variants of this sequence (VRN-B1.f, VRN-B1.s, and VRN-B1.m), was detected. It was found that the dominant Vrn-B1c allele is commonly found in varieties of T. durum from Russia and Ukraine, but not Europe or USA. Furthermore, many Ukrainian and Russian varieties carry the dominant alleles of the both VRN-A1 and VRN-B1 genes simultaneously, while varieties from Europe and America carry the dominant allele of VRN-A1 alone. Finally, a high frequency of the Vrn-B3a allele, which previously was found only in some accessions of hexaploid wheat, was observed for varieties from Ukraine and Russia. It was revealed that the Ukrainian pool of T. durum varieties is currently the largest genetic source of the dominant Vrn-B3a allele in wheat in the worldwide.

Genetic linkage between protein and DNA polymorphisms and antioxidant capacity of Cuminum cyminum L. accessions.

This study aimed to link the genetic variation observed using sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis among 11 Cuminum cyminum L. accessions, collected from diverse ecogeographical areas in Saudi Arabia, with their antioxidant capacity to better identify potential genotypes for breeding programs for this medicinal spice. SDS-PAGE analysis revealed genetic variation among cumin germplasms and distinct polymorphisms (100%). Protein polymorphisms were identified based on the number of polypeptide bands (288) with molecular weights ranging from 13.85 to 350 kDa, band intensity, the appearance of new bands, and the absence of other bands. RAPD analysis revealed 363 amplified DNA products with a high polymorphism value (98.88%) based on DNA band type (unique, non-unique, and monomorphic), DNA 90 to 1085-bp long, and band intensity. The unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean clustering based on SDS-PAGE or RAPD and Jaccard's similarity coefficient divided cumin accessions into similar but distinct clusters with respect to their location of collection. The antioxidant potential of cumin accessions based on 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity, the β-carotene-linoleate model system, and total phenolic and flavonoid contents revealed distinct variability. These data indicate that cumin is a valuable genetic resource with high antioxidant activity. Additionally, clustering based on antioxidant activity was not identical to that based on SDS-PAGE and RAPD. Data and clustering of SDS-PAGE and RAPD, combined with the high antioxidant capacity of cumin accessions, are important for the efficient use of genetic resources of cumin in breeding strategies and genetic improvement programs.

Genetic diversity and taxonomic studies of date plum (Diospyros lotus L.) using morphological traits and SCoT markers

Date plum persimmon (Diospyros lotus L.) is an important fruit crop in China due to its better compatibility as a major root stock for Diospyros kaki Thunb. The objective of this study was to reveal the diversity and taxonomic status based on morphological and molecular markers for 26 date plum persimmon accessions from different ecogeographical areas. Significant variability was observed in the 26 date plum persimmon accessions using the analysis of 5 quantitative and 16 qualitative morphological characters of branches, fruits and seeds. Molecular diversity was analyzed using start codon targeted (SCoT) markers. A total of 118 bands were produced with 11 SCoT primers; genetic similarity was ranged from 0.42 to 0.83, which indicating higher genetic variation among accessions. Based on the cluster results of morphological and molecular data, the results showed that date plum persimmon may be divided into five taxonomic types which including male date plum persimmon, rounded seedless date plum persimmon, rounded seedy date plum persimmon, obround seedless date plum persimmon, and oblate seedy date plum persimmon.

Genetic diversity analysis for moisture stress adaptive and quality traits in bread wheat (<i>Triticum aestivum</i>)

A study was conducted to work out the genetic divergence for yield, morpho-physiological and quality traits in timely sown restricted irrigated and rainfed conditions. In the pooled analysis, cluster IV and V had 33 genotypes each and cluster III contained 29 genotypes, while cluster VI had 22 genotypes. Eighteen and 15 genotypes were included in cluster I and II, respectively. Maximum intra-cluster distance was reported in cluster III followed by VI, II, I and IV and minimum intra- cluster distance was found for cluster V. Genotypes included in III, VI and II revealed maximum diversity among themselves. Highest inter-cluster distance was observed between cluster II and III followed by I and III, I and VI. Moderate inter-cluster distance was noticed between II and IV in the pooled analysis. Parentage of 150 genotypes revealed that genotypes were belonging to different eco-geographical areas were included in the same cluster. This indicated that there is no association between clustering pattern and eco- geographical distribution of genotypes.

Genetic diversity analysis for high temperature stress tolerance in pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br

The present study was conducted to evaluate the genetic divergence among thirty-eight elite pearl millet genotypes using Mahalanobis D2 statistics for thirteen different agronomic, morphological and thermotolerance traits, under rain-fed condition. Analysis of variance indicated considerable diversity among genotypes showing significant variability for all the characters including thermo-tolerance. D2-clustering grouped the genotypes into 3 clusters, in which leaf sheath length (11.95 %), leaf blade length (11.61 %), leaf blade width (9.48 %) and MSI (9.33 %) contributed significantly for the genetic divergence observed among genotypes. Cluster II was characterised with genotypes having higher values of MSI and other leaf characters which got associated with higher yield and yield contributing characters. Screening genotype for seedling thermo-tolerance suggested, 841B as most tolerant (MSI = 71.2 %) and PPMI 69 as most susceptible genotype (MSI = 52.5 %). Maximum inter cluster distance was observed between clusters II and III (4.132), while maximum intra cluster distance was observed in group III (3.079). The pattern of distribution of genotypes belonging to same eco-geographical areas was random, which indicated that there was no association between genetic diversity and eco-geographical distribution of genotypes. The clustering of genotypes will help to identify divergent genetic material for obtaining highly heterotic pearl millet hybrid with thermo tolerance through hybridisation.

The New Wheat Vernalization Response Allele Vrn-D1s is Caused by DNA Transposon Insertion in the First Intron

Vernalization requirement in hexaploid wheat is largely controlled by a series of homoeologous VERNALIZATION (Vrn) genes, Vrn-A1, Vrn-B1, and Vrn-D1. The sequence of the promoter area and first intron of Vrn-D1 were analysed in 77 hexaploid accessions, representing five wheat species (Triticum compactum, Triticum sphaerococcum, Triticum spelta, Triticum vavilovii, and Triticum macha) sampled from different ecogeographic areas within 35 countries. Polymorphism was detected in the Vrn-D1 promoter, resulting in a new Vrn-D1 haplotype (named here, Hap-8T). Analysis of Vrn-D1 intron-1 sequences revealed a novel insertional mutation in a subset of T. spelta and T. compactum accessions. This mutant allele was designated Vrn-D1s. Analysis of the 844 bp insertion revealed it to be a novel transposable DNA element (named DTA_Chimera_KF800714) not previously described in Triticum, belonging to the hAT superfamily. Finally, we describe a PCR-based assay that discriminates the wild-type vrn-D1 allele from the Vrn-D1s allele. Collectively, the work described here highlights the potential of utilizing minor hexaploid wheat species for the identification of novel alleles of agronomic importance.

Nepalese traditional medicine and symptoms related to Parkinson׳s disease and other disorders: Patterns of the usage of plant resources along the Himalayan altitudinal range

Ethnopharmacological relevanceNepal is a hotspot for cultural and biological diversities. The tremendous diversity of ecosystems and climates and the blend of medicinal practices inherited from Ayurvedic and Traditional Tibetan Medicine are well suited to a study aimed at discovering information about medicinal plants to treat Parkinson’s disease (PD). In addition, this study across Nepal’s altitudinal range is relevant to understanding how cultural and ecological environments influence local traditional medicines. The aim of the study is to document the uses of medicinal plants in three different eco-geographical areas of Nepal (Chitwan–Panchase–Mustang) to treat symptoms related to PD. A second goal is to analyze the impact of culture and environment on the evolution of traditional medicine. Materials and methodsThe study was conducted in five communities located in three different eco-geographical environments and at altitudes ranging from 300m to 3700m. We interviewed a total of 56 participants (local people, folk, Ayurvedic and Amchi healers) across the three research areas. We conducted open-ended interviews to document the uses of medicinal plants to treat PD-related symptoms. Information provided by the interviewees suggested that the medicinal plants are also used to treat symptoms related to other disorders. We determined the informant consensus factor as well as the importance of specific plant species to (i) identify plants that are the best candidates to be analyzed experimentally for their potential to treat PD and (ii) perform a cross-cultural comparison of the three areas of study. ResultsThis study reports the local uses of 35 different plant species along the Chitwan–Panchase–Mustang altitudinal range. We identify a total of eight plant species that were used in all three research areas, and more specifically one species used to treat PD-like symptoms. We identify a potential dual protective activity of medicinal plants used to treat PD-related symptoms as recent literature suggests that these plants also have anti-cancer properties. In addition, we document that the presence of Ayurvedic healers could influence local practices and that local practices could influence local Ayurvedic practices. ConclusionsThis study documents the uses of medicinal plants to treat symptoms related to PD and other disorders across the Chitwan–Panchase–Mustang altitudinal range. PD is a neurodegenerative disease affecting a growing number of people worldwide. No cures are available to slow the death of the neurons, and there is a critical need to work towards innovative therapeutic strategies. We identify medicinal plants based on traditional practices to help develop a cure for PD. The three areas of study were chosen for their ecological and cultural diversities, and two of these are included in conservation programs (Panchase Protected Forest and Annapurna Conservation Area). The documentation of community–natural resource relationships is another step in the preservation of traditional practices and local biodiversity and a reflection of communities’ rights in the design of conservation programs.

Races of Colletotrichum graminicola pathogenic to maize in Brazil

Anthracnose caused by the fungus Colletotrichum graminicola (Ces.) Wilson is the most important disease of maize in Brazil, especially in no-tillage without crop rotation. In this system, maize debris from earlier plantings increases the fungal inoculum potential over time. The use of genetic resistance is the most appropriate and advantageous strategy for anthracnose control. However, the effectiveness and durability of this practice depends on knowledge concerning the genetic variability of C. graminicola. In this study, fifteen maize genotypes were tested against 190 single spore of C. graminicola collected from infected leaves of maize plants cultivated in seven different Brazilian ecogeographic areas. Five races of C. graminicola were identified, and eleven maize genotypes were susceptible to all isolates. Results indicated that both the number of pathogen isolates and the number of genotypes to be tested are pivotal for an accurate identification of C. graminicola races. This is the first study showing the occurrence of C. graminicola races in Brazil.

Genetic diversity for moisture deficit stress adaptive traits in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

A study was conducted to evaluate the genetic divergence for morphological and phenological traits under rainfed conditions in wheat. Seed material comprised of the 294 wheat genotypes used for this study and grouped into six clusters. Among the six clusters, cluster IV contained 86 and cluster I had 68 genotypes, followed by 12 genotypes in cluster V. Fifty one genotypes were grouped in cluster VI and 52 were included in cluster II, while cluster III was represented by 27 genotypes. Maximum cluster mean for the character grain yield per plot was observed for the cluster III (667.1) followed by cluster V (559.3). The minimum cluster mean under the rainfed conditions was observed for the cluster IV (269.3). Intra cluster distance was maximum for cluster III (3.125). The highest inter cluster distance was noted between cluster II and cluster IV (4.997). Parentage of 294 genotypes revealed that genotypes belonging to different eco-geographical areas were included in the same cluster. This indicated that there was no association between clustering pattern and eco-geographical distribution of genotypes.

Comparative sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and restricted fragment length polymorphism among fenugreek accessions

Protein and DNA polymorphismswere surveyed among seven accessions of wild fenugreek (Trigonellafoenum-graecum L.) to estimate their genetic diversity and relationships. Samples were obtained from diverse ecogeographical areas in Saudi Arabia and Yemen. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) analysis of seed storage protein showed genetic variations among fenugreek germplasms, both quantitatively and qualitatively, generating a total of 168 polypeptide bands with different molecular weights ranging from 4.5 to 300 kDa. Twenty-six of these bands were polymorphic, with a considerable polymorphism value (80.00%). Furthermore, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis was also employed, which was based on the ability of four restriction enzymes (EagI, EcoRI, FspI, and HindIII) to cleave genomic DNA of the plant materials at specific target nucleotide sequences into different numbers of DNA fragments. RFLP analysis revealed 166 fragments with known sequences and variable lengths ranging from 80 to 4000 bp with a highly degree of polymorphism (88.71%). Data derived from SDS-PAGE or RFLP analyses were used to produce dendrograms, which clustered the studied fenugreek accessions into different groups based on the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA). The resulting relationships indicated that these two marker techniques were nearly equivalent, but not identical, with respect to phylogenetic information. In conclusion, SDS-PAGE analysis of seed proteins should be augmented with RFLP analysis of DNA for reliable estimates of genetic diversity among fenugreek germplasms.

Accuracy assessment of the Mexican National Forest Inventory map: A study in four ecogeographical areas

The accuracy of the Mexican National Forest Inventory (NFI) map is derived in four distinct ecogeographical areas, using an assessment design tailored for the project. A main achievement of the design was to integrate the high diversity of classes encompassed at the most detailed subcommunity level of the classification scheme within a cost-controlled statistically sound assessment. A hybrid double sampling strategy was applied to the 2.5 million-ha study area. A total of 5955 reference sites were verified against their NFI map label. The availability of detailed quasi-synchronous reference data for the 2000 Landsat-derived NFI and the high diversity of mapped classes allowed a careful thematic analysis on the selected regions, relevant for national extrapolation. Global accuracy estimates of 64–78 per cent were registered among the four ecogeographical areas (two with mainly temperate climate and the other two with mainly tropical climate), with the lower accuracy levels found in areas more densely covered with forests. According to the estimates, the NFI map tends to underestimate the presence of temperate forest (especially oak) and overestimate the presence of tropical forest in the areas investigated. The analysis of confusions reveals difficulties in unambiguously interpreting or labelling forests with secondary vegetation, herbaceous and/or shrub-like vegetation as well as distinguishing between aquatic vegetation types. The design proved useful from the perspective of accuracy assessments of regional maps in biodiverse regions.

Evaluation and Selection of Suitable Red Pepper (Capsicum annuum var. conoides Mill.) Types in Turkey

This study was conducted in order to select valuable genetic resources of red conic pepper (Capsicum annuum var. conoides Mill.) in Bafra plain situated on Black Sea Region of Turkey during 2003 and 2005. Fifty six red pepper populations were collected from different eco-geographical areas in the research region. All native red pepper genotypes were examined with respect to morphological characteristics. Ranking method was used for selecting superior types. The results of ranking method revealed twenty two superior types. Research results also showed that all populations had 11.2-19.2 cm fruit length, 4.8-7.2 cm fruit width, and 4.3-5.8 mm for flesh thickness. Fruit colours of selected types were in red and dark red tones. In the majority of populations harvest time occurred at 105 days. On the other hand, the genotypes exhibited a range of 653.9-1415.5 g for the total fruit weight/plants, 7.2-13.5 for the fruit number/plant, 53.0-155.0 mg/100 g for ascorbic acid, 5.2-8.0% for total soluble solids, and 8.0-11.9% for total dry weight. At the end of this research, 12 types were selected as being promising for further breeding efforts.

APPLICATION OF THE DYA METHOD TO COMPARE WHEAT CULTIVAR YIELDS

At the 1998 conference, we proposed use of the DYA (differential yielding ability) method to compare the yielding ability of wheat cultivars. In this paper we review the method: its models and assumptions, and then show computation of sample statistics. An example will exhibit the output from performance trial yields when the method is applied in one of the nine ecogeographic areas of fall-planted wheat in the Midwest. Results of comparable outputs over years forecasted which cultivars would become popular with growers in Kansas

Radical scavenging activity of einkorn ( Triticum monococcum L. subsp. monococcum) wholemeal flour and its relationship to soluble phenolic and lipophilic antioxidant content

The present research assessed the radical scavenging activity against the synthetic 2,2-diphenyl-1-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl)hydrazyl radical of the water-saturated 1-butanol extracts of wholemeal flour from 63 Triticum monococcum accessions, which originated from different eco-geographical areas. On average, T. monococcum had higher radical scavenging activity than T. turgidum and T. aestivum species, which served as controls (0.90, 0.64 and 0.70 mmol TE/kg DM, for T. monococcum, T. turgidum and T. aestivum, respectively). A significant correlation between radical scavenging activity and tocol content was observed, while no correlation existed with soluble phenolics and carotenoid contents.

Genetic Diversity of Acacia seyal Del. Rhizobial Populations Indigenous to Senegalese Soils in Relation to Salinity and pH of the Sampling Sites

The occurrence and the distribution of rhizobial populations naturally associated to Acacia seyal Del. were characterized in 42 soils from Senegal. The diversity of rhizobial genotypes, as characterized by polymerase chain reaction restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of 16S-23S rDNA, performed on DNA extracted from 138 nodules resulted in 15 clusters. Results indicated the widespread occurrence of compatible rhizobia associated to A. seyal in various ecogeographic areas. However, the clustering of rhizobial populations based on intergenic spacer (IGS) RFLP profiles did not reflect their geographic origin. Four genera were discriminated on the basis of 16S rRNA gene sequences of the strains representative for the IGS-RFLP profiles. The majority of rhizobia associated to A. seyal were affiliated to Mesorhizobium and Sinorhizobium 64 and 29%, respectively, of the different IGS-RFLP profiles. Our results demonstrate the coexistence inside the nodule of plant-pathogenic non-N(2)-fixing Agrobacterium and Burkholderia strains, which induced the formation of ineffective nodules, with symbiotic rhizobia. Nodulation was recorded in saline soils and/or at low pH values or in alkaline soils, suggesting adaptability of natural rhizobial populations to major ecological environmental stress and their ability to establish symbiotic associations within these soil environments. These results contribute to the progressing research efforts to uncover the biodiversity of rhizobia and to improve nitrogen fixation in agroforestry systems in sub-Saharan Africa.

Carotenoids and tocols of einkorn wheat ( Triticum monococcum ssp. monococcum L.)

The nutritional properties of einkorn and its potential as a donor of useful traits to cultivated wheat prompted the survey of carotenoid and tocol content of 54 accessions of einkorn originating from different eco-geographical areas, by HPLC analysis. Eight Triticum turgidum and seven Triticum aestivum cultivars were analysed in parallel. Carotenoids, mostly lutein, averaged 8.41 μg/g dm, 2–4 times more than non-einkorn wheats, with a maximum of 13.4 μg/g dm. Several accessions showed significant amounts of carotenes (above 25% of total carotenoids), sometimes together with high lutein contents. Tocols averaged 77.96 μg/g dm, significantly exceeding the non-einkorn wheats, with a maximum of 115.85 μg/g dm. The most abundant tocol was β -tocotrienol (48.22 μg/g dm), followed by α -tocotrienol (12.77 μg/g dm), α -tocopherol (12.18 μg/g dm) and β -tocopherol (4.79 μg/g dm); the mean tocotrienol/tocopherol ratio was 3.68. Einkorns from different geographical areas had diverse average total carotenoid and tocol values; two geographic gradients were observed, possibly reflecting the original routes of spread of einkorn into Europe from the Middle East.