Eclectus Roratus Research Articles

Systemic Coxiella-like Infection With Myocarditis and Hepatitis in an Eclectus Parrot (Eclectus roratus)

A multiorgan infection with a Coxiella-like organism was determined to be the cause of death of a female eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus). The diagnosis was based on gross lesions, histopathology, Gimenez and Gram special stains, immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, and polymerase chain reaction amplification and sequencing of a bacterial 16s rRNA gene fragment isolated from hepatic and cardiac tissue. Gross postmortem examination revealed multifocal to coalescing foci of hepatic necrosis. The most significant histologic lesions included multifocal lymphohistiocytic necrotizing hepatitis, locally extensive lymphoplasmacytic myocarditis, and myocardial degeneration and necrosis. Intralesional cytoplasmic organisms were identified in cardiomyocytes, biliary epithelium, and pancreatic exocrine cells. This is the first description of a Coxiella-like organism with wide-ranging cellular tropisms in a psittacine bird. In addition, lymphoplasmacytic neuritis, myositis, splenitis, airsacculitis, and enteritis were detected. It is also the first report of a Coxiella-like infection in an eclectus parrot.

Disseminated histoplasmosis with concurrent oral candidiasis in an Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus)

Disseminated histoplasmosis caused by Histoplasma capsulatum, a zoonotic fungal organism, is an important disease in animals and humans, particularly those with compromised immune systems. Reports of disseminated histoplasmosis in an avian species are not available within the current literature. Candida albicans, another fungal agent with zoonotic importance, is a commensal of the avian digestive tract that is often associated with opportunistic infections particularly in young or immunocompromised birds. This report describes a case of concomitant histoplasmosis and candidiasis in an Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus) characterized by severe granulomatous glossitis, blepharitis and osteomyelitis with numerous intrahistiocytic and extracellular yeasts (H. capsulatum) as well as intralesional hyphae, pseudohyphae and conidia (C. albicans). To our knowledge, co-infection with H. capsulatum and C. albicans has not been reported in an avian species.

Use of a duodenal serosal patch in the repair of a colon rupture in a female Solomon Island eclectus parrot

Case Description-A 444-g (0.98-lb) 4-year-old sexually intact female Solomon Island eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus solomonensis) was referred and evaluated for a suspected colonic obstruction. Clinical Findings-The parrot had a 3-day history of not passing feces and lack of appetite following treatment of dystocia that included percutaneous collapse of the egg and manual removal of egg fragments via the cloaca. During this procedure, a tear in the cloacal mucosa developed. The tear was repaired via a midline cloacotomy. Although clinically stable at the time of referral, the parrot became lethargic and bradycardic and had delayed crop emptying. Treatment and Outcome-A midline celiotomy and cloacotomy were performed to relieve the colonic obstruction, during which the severely distended colon ruptured. The colonic defects were closed in a simple interrupted pattern, and a serosal patch was applied by use of the adjacent duodenum. The bird recovered uneventfully from anesthesia and was passing voluminous feces with mildly increased effort within 1 hour after surgery. At 3 weeks after surgery, the parrot was passing feces with no increase in effort and had a normal appetite. Clinical Relevance-Application of a duodenal serosal patch for repair of a colon rupture was successful in this parrot. Gastrointestinal obstruction is rare in birds, but should be considered in birds that have regurgitation, decreased fecal production, and gastrointestinal dilation. Because birds lack an omentum, serosal patching with adjacent duodenum should be considered as a viable option in avian surgery.

Post-larval stages of Ascoschoengastia (Laurentella) lorius (Gunther) (Acariformes: Trombiculidae) provide evidence for a nest-based life history

While certain ecological groups of trombiculid mites are thought to be specialised for nest occupation, supporting evidence is rare. A putatively nest-specialised trombiculid is here described in detail. Larvae, a deutonymph and adults of the trombiculid genus Ascoschoengastia were collected from three tree hollow nests occupied by Eclectus parrots (Eclectus roratus) and Sulphur-crested Cockatoos (Cacatua galerita) at Iron Range, Cape York Peninsula. The larvae are A. (Laurentella) lorius (Gunther), a species originally described from an Eclectus parrot in Papua New Guinea. Deutonymph and adult Ascoschoengastia are also assigned to this species based on their co-occurrence with larvae in this specific and isolated microhabitat. A. (L.) lorius is inferred to have a nest-based life history. Active stases are described with attention to sensory setae. The previous synonomy of A. (L.) daria with A. (L.) lorius is rejected. A key to Australian species of Ascoschoengastia is presented.

The ecological basis of unusual sex roles in reverse-dichromatic eclectus parrots

In theory, sex roles are determined by the potential reproductive rates of males and females, which are constrained by parental investment. Thus the sex that invests least in offspring typically competes most for matings and is most subject to sexual selection, whereas the caring sex is most choosy when selecting mates. Here I show that ecological variables, rather than patterns of parental investment, can be influential in determining sex roles and the direction of sexual selection. In the polyandrous eclectus parrot, Eclectus roratus , both sexes care for offspring, yet despite traditional parental care patterns, both sexes are competitive and both are subject to sexual selection. The bright red and blue females compete for scarce nest hollows and the iridescent green males for mates. Using data from an 8-year field study, I show that the major ecological variable driving this system is nest hollow quality. Females with drier hollows had higher reproductive success and more males feeding and competing to mate with them. Females with nest hollows that were prone to flooding had fewer fledglings in years with higher dry season rainfall, confirming that hollow quality was a primary determinant of reproductive success. Comparisons of females before and after they changed hollows during the study provided further evidence that these trends were due to hollow quality rather than individual female quality. Thus competition for a scarce resource can lead to high variance in female reproductive success, and promote competition for high-quality mates among males.

Feather-picking Psittacines: Histopathology and Species Trends

Histologic findings are described for 408 feather-picking or self-mutilating psittacines with the use of biopsies from clinically affected and unaffected skin. Inflammatory skin disease was diagnosed in 210 birds, and traumatic skin disease was diagnosed in 198 birds. Criteria used for the diagnosis of inflammatory skin disease included the presence of perivascular inflammation in the superficial or deep dermis of clinically affected and unaffected sites. The primary histologic criteria for the diagnosis of traumatic skin disease were superficial dermal scarring with or without inflammation in the affected sites and an absence of inflammation in the unaffected sites. The inflammatory cells associated with the lesions were typically lymphocytes and occasionally plasma cells, histiocytes, and granulocytes. A preponderance of inflammatory skin disease was seen in macaws (Ara spp.) and Amazon parrots (Amazona spp.). A preponderance of traumatic skin disease was seen in cockatoos (Cacatua spp.) and African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus). The prevalence of each was approximately equal in several other species, including conures (Aratinga and Pyrrhura spp.), eclectus parrots (Eclectus roratus), quaker parrots (Myiopsitta monachus), cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus), parakeets (Cyanorhamphus and Psittacula spp.), and caiques (Pionites spp.). No geographic or gender-based trends were identified. These findings could be helpful for identifying and treating birds with feather-picking disorders.

Complications Associated With Conjoined Intramedullary Pin Placement for Femorotibial Joint Luxation in a Solomon Island Eclectus Parrot (Eclectus roratus solomonensis)

Femorotibial joint-luxation repair with conjoined intramedullary pins has been successfully used in pediatric psittacine birds. However, there are no reports of complications associated with its use in adults. In this report, we describe the clinical presentation, surgical reduction, and postoperative complications associated with stifle-luxation repair in an adult female Solomon Island eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus solomonensis). The normal perching angle for the eclectus stifle was determined before surgery. Osteomyelitis was treated systemically and locally. Midfemoral amputation was performed as a salvage procedure, without an apparent reduction in the quality of the bird's life.

Genetic evidence for cooperative polyandry in reverse dichromatic Eclectus parrots

Group size in cooperatively polyandrous birds appears to be limited by the diminishing probability that any one male will achieve paternity as group size increases. Here we use molecular techniques to analyse the mating system of Eclectus parrots, a species with a surprisingly large number of males (up to seven) in each group. We show that their social groups are not composed of kin, and that all males seek direct fitness. Most broods of two nestlings had just one father. However, further group males gained paternity in other nesting attempts within and between breeding seasons. Although the likelihood of multiple paternity increased with the number of males in the group, only a subset of group males gained paternity over the eight-year study period. Some males gained paternity at irregular intervals with the same female over multiple years, and many also mated polygynandrously at widely dispersed nests. Our data also confirm that females monopolise scarce breeding hollows over multiple years. We suggest that Eclectus parrots occur in larger group sizes than other cooperatively polyandrous species as a result of a severely biased operational sex ratio brought about by a scarcity of breeding females and a male-biased adult sex ratio.

Patterns of supra-canopy flight by pigeons and parrots at a hill-forest site in Papua New Guinea

It is important that conservation strategies consider the needs of taxa that range over large areas or make significant daily or seasonal movements across areas or habitats, but data on movements in most tropical animal species is lacking. We examined frequency, direction, and temporal variation in supra-canopy flight activity (number of individuals recorded per hour of recording) of eight species of parrot and seven species of pigeon over 5 months in a New Guinean hill-forest. Papuan Mountain Pigeon (Gymnophaps albertisii) contributed 44% of all flights and Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua galerita) 17%; while 95% of 1800 flights were made by seven species. Directions of flights were non-random in nearly all species. There was a significant movement of Papuan Mountain Pigeon, and smaller movements of Dusky Lory (Pseudeos fuscata), Rainbow Lorikeet (Trichoglossus haematodus) and Eclectus Parrot (Eclectus roratus), towards lower altitudes in the mornings and a varying return to higher altitudes in the afternoons. Most species made more supra-canopy flights in the mornings than the afternoons but the exact patterns of flight differed between species. Flight activity varied significantly between months in several species, and flight activity tended to be highest during periods of breeding in most frugivorous birds. Large-bodied species made more supra-canopy flights than did smaller species, but there was no relationship across species between ‘on-the-ground’ bird densities and flight-frequency. Breadth of frugivorous diet (determined by review of the literature) did not influence flight-frequency. The factors that underpin the highly variable patterns of movement were identified. How these patterns might be affected by changes in land-use is important for landscape-level conservation, especially for those species that make systematic long-distance movements.

Immune-mediated hemolytic anemia in an eclectus parrot

A 2-year-old female Solomon Island eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus) was evaluated by a veterinarian because of a 4-day history of progressive lethargy, weakness, poor appetite, and inactivity. The bird was referred to a veterinary teaching hospital for further examination. Clinicopathologic analyses revealed that the parrot had marked regenerative anemia, autoagglutination, and biliverdinuria. Small, rounded RBCs (thought to be spherocytes) were detected in blood smears. The abnormal findings met the diagnostic criteria for dogs with primary immune-mediated hemolytic anemia. However, analyses of blood samples for lead and zinc concentrations and plasma bile acids concentrations; the use of PCR assays for Chlamydophila psittaci, psittacine circovirus 1 (causative agent of beak and feather disease), and polyomavirus; and microbial culture and Gram staining of feces did not reveal a cause for the hemolytic anemia. Although administration of immunosuppressive doses of cyclosporine was initiated, there was a rapid progression of disease, which lead to death of the parrot before this treatment could be continued long-term. Lack of an identifiable underlying disease (confirmed by complete histologic examinations at necropsy) supported the diagnosis of primary immune-mediated hemolytic anemia. Primary immune-mediated hemolytic anemia has not been widely reported in psittacine birds. A comprehensive evaluation and complete histologic examination of tissues to rule out underlying disease processes are required to definitively establish a diagnosis of primary immune-mediated hemolytic anemia in parrots. Primary immune-me-diated hemolytic anemia should be considered as a differential diagnosis for regenerative anemia in a parrot.

Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Infraorbital Sinus With Fungal Tracheitis and Ingluvitis in an Adult Solomon Eclectus Parrot (Eclectus roratus solomonensis)

Abstract Squamous cell carcinoma of the infraorbital sinus was diagnosed in a 5-year-old Solomon Island eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus solomonensis) that presented with exophthalmos of the right globe and an ulcerative mass of 2-months duration at the right commissure of the beak. The mass was 2.5 × 2 × 2 cm and contained caseous exudate. The ulcerative lesion was surgically debulked, but the bird died and was submitted for necropsy. Histopathologic examination of the infraorbital sinus revealed squamous cell carcinoma with no evidence of metastasis. The trachea was heavily infiltrated with thick, septate fungal hyphae, and evidence of fungal angioinvasion was observed in the trachea and muscular layer of the crop.

Birds, including extinct species, encountered by the Malaspina Expedition on Vava'u, Tonga, in 1793

Four drawings and a short manuscript reference from the Spanish Malaspina Expedition provide certain records of five species of birds on the island of Vava'u, Kingdom of Tonga, in 1793. Three of these are extant species known historically on Vava'u: Purple Swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio), Purple-capped Fruit-Dove (Ptilinopus porphyraceus), and Blue-crowned Lorikeet (Vini australis). Also depicted is what is believed to be an extinct rail, probably flightless, of the genus Gallirallus, with possible relatives known from bones on ‘Eua, Tongatapu Group, and from an historical account on Tahiti. Another drawing appears to represent a male of the extinct parrot Eclectus infectus, recently described from bones from ‘Eua and from Lifuka and ‘Uiha in the Ha'apai Group. Thus, this parrot and an extinct rail appear to have survived on Vava'u as late as the end of the eighteenth century.

Small intestinal foreign body in an adult Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus) : clinical communication

A 14-month-old female Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus) was presented with a 4-week history of bloody diarrhea and depression. No additional information could be gained from physical examination. Only selected diagnostic tests (faecal examination, haematocrit, aspartate aminotransferase, and uric acid) could be performed due to financial constraints, but all where within reference range. Unspecific antibiotic treatment was started and the bird responded well initially, but had to be readmitted 2.5 weeks after initial presentation. Four weeks after initial presentation the owner finally consented to taking whole body radiographs and a diagnosis of an intestinal foreign body could be made. The foreign body was surgically removed 2 days later. The bird recovered uneventfully after surgery and was still in good health 1 year after surgery. This article emphasises the importance of diagnostic imaging in the avian patient. A brief review of avian gastrointestinal foreign bodies is given (concentrating on the psittacine patient) and the importance of distinguishing metallic from non-metallic gastrointestinal foreign bodies are discussed.

Microsatellite loci for behavioural studies of Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus: Aves)

AbstractTen polymorphic microsatellite loci were isolated from the cooperatively breeding and sexually dichromatic Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus). Nine loci were in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium and unlinked. One locus, Ero1, was presumed to be sex‐linked since females, the heterogametic sex, were all homozygous, whereas 72% of males were heterozygous. A DNA database search revealed that Ero8 is probably an independent isolation of the microsatellite locus AgGT83 of the parrot Amozona guildingii. With high heterozygosity (0.41–0.89) and number of alleles (two to 13), these loci should prove useful for investigating the mating system of these unusual Australasian parrots.

Analysis of the beak and feather disease viral genome indicates the existence of several genotypes which have a complex psittacine host specificity.

A study was made of the phylogenetic relationships between fifteen complete nucleotide sequences as well as 43 nucleotide sequences of the putative coat protein gene of different strains belonging to the virus species Beak and feather disease virus obtained from 39 individuals of 16 psittacine species. The species included among others, cockatoos ( Cacatuini), African grey parrots ( Psittacus erithacus) and peach-faced lovebirds ( Agapornis roseicollis), which were infected at different geographical locations, within and outside Australia, the native origin of the virus. The derived amino acid sequences of the putative coat protein were highly diverse, with differences between some strains amounting to 50 of the 250 amino acids. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that the putative coat gene sequences form six clusters which show a varying degree of psittacine species specificity. Most, but not all strains infecting African grey parrots formed a single cluster as did the strains infecting the cockatoos. Strains infecting the lovebirds clustered with those infecting such Australasian species as Eclectus roratus, Psittacula kramerii and Psephotus haematogaster. Although individual birds included in this study were, where studied, often infected by closely related strains, infection by highly diverged trains was also detected. The possible relationship between BFD viral strains and clinical disease signs is discussed.

Carotenoid pigments and the selectivity of psittacofulvin-based coloration systems in parrots

Carotenoid pigments are commonly used as colorants of feathers and bare parts by birds. However, parrots (Aves: Psittaciformes) use a novel class of plumage pigments (called psittacofulvins) that, like carotenoids, are lipid-soluble and red, orange, or yellow in color. To begin to understand how and why parrots use these pigments and not carotenoids in their feathers, we must first describe the distribution of these two types of pigments in the diet, tissues, and fluids of these birds. Here, we studied the carotenoid content of blood in five species of parrots with red in their plumage to see if they show the physiological ability to accumulate carotenoids in the body. Although Scarlet ( Ara macao) and Greenwing Macaws ( Ara chloroptera) and Eclectus ( Eclectus roratus), African Gray ( Psittacus erithacus) and Blue-fronted Amazon ( Amazona aestiva) Parrots all use psittacofulvins to color their feathers red, we found that they also circulated high concentrations of both dietary (lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin) and metabolically derived (anhydrolutein, dehydrolutein) carotenoids through blood at the time of feather growth, at levels comparable to those found in many other carotenoid-colored birds. These results suggest that parrots have the potential to use carotenoids for plumage pigmentation, but preferentially avoid depositing them in feathers, which is likely under the control of the maturing feather follicle. As there is no evidence of psittacofulvins in parrot blood at the tune of feather growth, we presume that these pigments are locally synthesized by growing feathers within the follicular tissue.

Carotenoid pigments and the selectivity of psittacofulvin-based coloration systems in parrots

Carotenoid pigments are commonly used as colorants of feathers and bare parts by birds. However, parrots (Aves: Psittaciformes) use a novel class of plumage pigments (called psittacofulvins) that, like carotenoids, are lipid-soluble and red, orange, or yellow in color. To begin to understand how and why parrots use these pigments and not carotenoids in their feathers, we must first describe the distribution of these two types of pigments in the diet, tissues, and fluids of these birds. Here, we studied the carotenoid content of blood in five species of parrots with red in their plumage to see if they show the physiological ability to accumulate carotenoids in the body. Although Scarlet (Ara macao) and Greenwing Macaws (Ara chloroptera) and Eclectus (Eclectus roratus), African Gray (Psittacus erithacus) and Blue-fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva) Parrots all use psittacofulvins to color their feathers red, we found that they also circulated high concentrations of both dietary (lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin) and metabolically derived (anhydrolutein, dehydrolutein) carotenoids through blood at the time of feather growth, at levels comparable to those found in many other carotenoid-colored birds. These results suggest that parrots have the potential to use carotenoids for plumage pigmentation, but preferentially avoid depositing them in feathers, which is likely under the control of the maturing feather follicle. As there is no evidence of psittacofulvins in parrot blood at the tune of feather growth, we presume that these pigments are locally synthesized by growing feathers within the follicular tissue.

Availability of nest hollows and breeding population size of eclectus parrots, Eclectus roratus, on Cape York Peninsula, Australia

The distribution of the Australian mainland endemic subspecies of the eclectus parrot, Eclectus roratus macgillivrayi, is currently confined to the lowland rainforests of the Iron–McIlwraith Ranges of eastern Cape York Peninsula. Females breed in large hollows in emergent rainforest trees that are readily visible from above. Aerial surveys were used to sample 58% of the rainforest (454 km2) of the Iron Range region to estimate the density of these nest trees. Corrections for overcounting bias (not all observed emergent trees were active nest trees) and undercounting bias (not all active nest trees were visible from the air) were made by ground-truthing over 70 trees. The tree count data were treated in two different ways, producing estimates of 417 (s.e. = 25) and 462 (s.e. = 31) nest trees for the Iron Range region. Long-term observational data on the number of eclectus parrots associated with each nest tree were used to estimate the population size of eclectus parrots at Iron Range: 538–596 breeding females, and 1059–1173 males. These results have three implications. First, this relatively low population estimate suggests that the Australian subspecies of eclectus parrots should be considered vulnerable to habitat loss or perturbation, especially in light of their complex social system, male-biased adult sex ratio, low breeding success and high variance in reproductive success among females. Second, the low density of nest trees suggests that eclectus parrots are absent from the rainforests of Lockerbie Scrub and the Jardine dunefields because these areas are too small. Finally, if eclectus parrots persisted in the Iron–McIlwraith region during the rainforest contractions of Pleistocene glacial maxima (e.g. 14 000–17 000 years ago), the refugium in this region must have been fairly substantial in order to support a viable population – probably larger than previously assumed.

Dysplastic Koilin Causing Proventricular Obstruction in an Eclectus Parrot (Eclectus roratus)

A 7-year-old male eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus) was presented for evaluation of acute onset of dyspnea, tachypnea, and lethargy. Proventricular dilatation was observed on survey radiographs. Contrast fluoroscopic examination revealed decreased gastrointestinal motility and retention of contrast material in the proventriculus. Despite supportive care, the bird died. At necropsy, a tubular diverticulum of the ventriculus extended orad into the proventriculus. This diverticulum caused almost complete obstruction of proventricular outflow. No inflammation, infectious organisms, or neoplasia were associated with the lesion. The cause of the ventricular diverticulum in this parrot is unknown.

Breeding biology of the reverse‐dichromatic, co‐operative parrot Eclectus roratus

AbstractThe breeding biology and social system of the eclectus parrot Eclectus roratus, a species with a unique form of sexual dichromatism (red and blue females, green males) was examined. Our 4‐year study at Iron Range National Park on Cape York Peninsula, Australia, showed that females guarded their nest hollows in emergent rainforest trees for up to 9 months each year, often starting well before they laid their first clutches early in the dry season. During this time they rarely left the nest and relied on males for food, both for themselves and their nestlings. Intrasexual competition for scarce hollows and the threat of egg destruction by other eclectus parrots may explain this extreme guarding behaviour. Reproductive success was low. The combined effects of egg and chick loss to conspecifics and predators, brood reduction and flooding of hollows from heavy rain meant that only 18% of eggs and 27% of clutches produced a fledgling. Over 4 years, reproductive success amongst females was strongly skewed: 39% of females were never successful, and only 29% produced more than one fledgling per year. Eclectus parrots were found to breed co‐operatively with as many as five males feeding a single female at the nest. Multiple mating, involving one female and four males, was observed once. Despite an even sex ratio at fledging, the adult sex ratio was strongly male‐biased, suggesting higher mortality of females. Our data shows that reproductive variance for females is high, and suggests that a shortage of tree hollows and eligible females may enforce co‐operative breeding amongst males.