Sirach Research Articles

Aaron jako nauczyciel świadectw (Syr 45,17)

W greckiej wersji Księgi Syracha dwukrotnie pojawia się termin "martyrion" (świadectwo). Oprócz Syr 36,14 pojawia się w Pochwale ojców w odniesieniu do osoby Aarona (Syr 45,17). Brat Mojżesza zostaje tam określony jako ten, który ma "nauczać Jakuba świadectw". Taka wypowiedź nie pojawia się w innych tekstach dotyczących Aarona w Biblii. Zostaje więc najpierw przeanalizowany kontekst tej wypowiedzi, a mianowicie pochwała Aarona obecna w Syr 45,6-22, a następnie porównane wersje tekstualne Syr 45,17. Zrozumienie znaczenia terminu świadectwo w tym kontekście, staje się możliwe dzięki analizie tego słowa innych kontekstach biblijnych związanych z historią Aarona i przymierza synajskiego, jak i niezależnymi od niej. W końcu wypowiedź dotycząca Aarona zostaje osadzona w czasach Syracha i tłumacza greckiej wersji księgi. Kluczowym dla zrozumienia Syr 45,17 staje się przedstawienie funkcji i znaczenia powygnaniowego arcykapłana. Jest on w rozumieniu Księgi Syracha jedynym pośrednikiem między Bogiem i ludem, znakiem przymierza, odpowiedzialnym za przekazywanie świadectw – Słowa Bożego, treści i wymagań wynikających z zawartego z Bogiem przymierza.

Like an Everlasting Signet Ring: Generosity in the Book of Sirach, written by Bradley C. Gregory

Like an Everlasting Signet Ring: Generosity in the Book of Sirach, written by Bradley C. Gregory

Book review: Foreign Nations in the Wisdom of Ben Sira: A Jewish Sage between Opposition and Assimilation, written by Marko Marttila

Book review: Foreign Nations in the Wisdom of Ben Sira: A Jewish Sage between Opposition and Assimilation, written by Marko Marttila

Book review: Like an Everlasting Signet Ring: Generosity in the Book of Sirach, written by Bradley C. Gregory

Book review: Like an Everlasting Signet Ring: Generosity in the Book of Sirach, written by Bradley C. Gregory

Book review: Foreign Nations in the Wisdom of Ben Sira: A Jewish Sage Between Opposition and Assimilation, written by Marko Marttila

Book review: Foreign Nations in the Wisdom of Ben Sira: A Jewish Sage Between Opposition and Assimilation, written by Marko Marttila

The Meanings of "Life" in the Hebrew of Ben Sira

The present note offers further examples where the Hebrew word חיים seems to indicate “maintenance,” “livelihood,” “manner of living,” and “what sustains life.” Many dictionaries list this definition of the word, but they usually cite just one passage in which the word has this meaning. The additional examples I provide derive mainly from the Wisdom of Ben Sira and suggest that this nuance to the word was common at least at the time when Ben Sira’s work was composed, ca. 180 B.C.E.

The Meanings of "Life" in the Hebrew of Ben Sira

The present note offers further examples where the Hebrew word חיים seems to indicate maintenance, livelihood, manner of living, and what sustains life. Many dictionaries list this definition of the word, but they usually cite just one passage in which the word has this meaning. The additional examples I provide derive mainly from the Wisdom of Ben Sira and suggest that this nuance to the word was common at least at the time when Ben Sira's work was composed, ca. 180 B.C.E.

Possessing the Iconic Book

I propose that the notion of possession adds an important ideological nuance to the analyses of iconic books set forth by Martin Marty (1980) and, more recently, by James Watts (2006). Using the early second century BCE book of Sirach as a case study, I tease out some of the symbolic dynamics through which the Bible achieved iconic status in the first place, that is, the conditions in which significance was attached to its material, finite shape. For Ben Sira, this symbolism was deeply tied to his honor-shame ethos in which women posed a threat to the honor of his eternal name, a threat resolved through his possession of Torah figured as the Woman Wisdom. What my analysis suggests is that the conflicted perceptions of gender in Ben Sira’s text is fundamental to his appropriation of, and attempt to produce, authoritative religious literature, and thus essential for understanding his relationship to this emerging canon. Torah, conceived as female, was the core of this canon, but Ben Sira adds his own literary production to this female “body” (or feminized corpus, if you will), becoming the voice of both through the experience of perfect possession.

Wisdom's Root Revealed: Ben Sira and the Election of Israel (review)

Reviewed by: Wisdom's Root Revealed: Ben Sira and the Election of Israel Alexander A. Di Lella Wisdom's Root Revealed: Ben Sira and the Election of Israel. By Greg Schmidt Goering. JSJSup 139. Leiden: Brill, 2009. Cloth. $159.00. Goering, assistant professor of Religious Studies at the University of Virginia, became acquainted with the question: "Who is a Jew?" That led him to consider the relationship of Wisdom and Torah, about which scholars have written extensively. He states that his purpose is "to show that the concept of election enables a profitable discussion of the relation of Wisdom and Torah in the book of Sirach" (p. xi). This book is a revised and expanded version of his doctoral dissertation at Harvard Divinity School (Jon D. Levenson director). Chapter 4 is the most extensive expansion. The book has seven chapters, the titles of which provide a good idea of the contents: 1. "Wisdom, Torah, and Election; An Introduction to the Study"; 2. "Election and Creation: The Sun, the Moon, and Israel's Chosenness"; 3. "Election and Revelation: General and Special Wisdom"; 4. "Election and Tradition: The Preservation and Transmission of Wisdom"; 5. "Election and Piety: The 'Fear of YHWH'"; 6. "Election and Eschatology: Israel among the Nations"; 7. "Conclusion: Ben Sira and the Election of Israel." Goering arranged the chapters with a certain symmetry: chapter 1, which establishes the initial problem, corresponds with chapter 7, which synthesizes his findings; chapter 2, which speaks of Ben Sira's creation theology, with chapter 6, which explains Ben Sira's eschatology; chapter 3, which deals with general and special wisdom, with chapter 5, which speaks of non-Jewish and Jewish piety. Chapter 4 stands in the center where [End Page 399] Goering analyzes the tradition of transmitting wisdom from one generation to another (p. 17). In chapter 1, Georing suggests that Ben Sira speaks of two kinds of wisdom, each of which originates in YHWH. YHWH gives to all persons general wisdom available through creation; but to Israel, His chosen people, he gives a special wisdom available through YHWH's commandments. In chapter 2, Georing shows how Ben Sira distinguishes one person from another on the basis of two unequal apportionments of divine wisdom. The first apportionment endows wisdom on all creation, including all humanity; the second gives an extra measure of wisdom to a select group, namely, Israel. These apportionments are forms of divine revelation. In chapter 3, the special wisdom granted to Israel is a special inheritance preserved and passed on from generation to generation. Chapter 4 identifies the mechanisms Ben Sira viewed as the means of safeguarding special wisdom for each Israelite generation. While marginalizing the role of the king, he stresses the role of the scribe as well as the role of the priests who preserve and transmit wisdom. These sociological realities reflect the new political configuration of Jerusalem in Ben Sira's day. Chapter 5 examines the content and purposes of the special wisdom Israel's elect are heir to and pass on to their children. The Jewish "fear of YHWH," implies loyalty to the stipulations of the covenant, which for Ben Sira are the Pentateuchal ethical and cultic commandments that enable the elect to conform their lives to the primeval order on which the world is built. This order connotes a piety that applies to non-Jews as well. In chapter 6, Goering explores Ben Sira's understanding of election for his eschatology. In Ben Sira's theology, non-Jews can experience fear of YHWH by recognizing God as Creator. Thus, the elect exercise a passive role in effecting the eschatological reality wherein all nations come to recognize YHWH as God alone. In chapter 7, Goering synthesizes the results of his study; he compares Ben Sira's theology of election with that of the Book of Jubilees as well as that of Philo. Jubilees, like Ben Sira, embraces a particularistic understanding of election originating in God's primordial decision to charge one people to practice a special piety. But Philo tended toward the universal view that any person could have an intimate relationship with the Lord by the philosophical quest of seeing God. From this comparison, it...

David in the Wisdom of Ben Sira

ABSTRACT David is portrayed in different ways in the Old Testament. The Deuteronomistic History depicts him as a capable military commander and as the first great king in the history of Israel / Judah. David’s glory becomes even brighter in the Chronicler’s presentation where all the negative aspects of David’s life have been erased. For the Chronicler, David was not only a political leader but also an important religious reformer, who actually organized the temple cult before the temple was even built. Many Davidic super scriptions in the Psalter hint at David’s role as the father of the Israelite psalmody. Ben Sira, who composed his famous Praise of the Ancestors (Sir 44-50) in the beginning of the second century B.C.E., was aware of these different pictures of David and attempted to combine miscellaneous features into a unity. Accordingly, David is both a successful warrior and an organizer of cultic practices in Sir 47,1-12. Instead, Ben Sira’s description of David is devoid of any Messianic expectations, even though Ben Sira lived in an era when various Messianic thoughts began to flourish.

Israel's God and Rebecca's Children: Christology and Community in Early Judaism and Christianity. Essays in Honor of Larry W. Hurtado and Alan F. Segal. Edited by DAVID B. CAPES, APRIL D. DECONICK, HELEN K. BOND, and TROY A. MILLER.

This ‘double’ Festschrift honours two significant figures within current New Testament scholarship, and the subtitle of the book, indicating the focus here on the themes of Christology and community in early Judaism and Christianity, reflects the particular contributions made by the honorands (cf. L. Hurtado’s magnum opus Lord Jesus Christ, and A. Segal’s Two Powers in Heaven as well as his Rebecca’s Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman World). The editors also successfully managed to keep the ‘double’ nature of the Festschrift a secret from each of the honorands, while inviting both to contribute: hence each thought he was writing for a Festschrift for the other and was unaware he was also writing in a book partly honouring himself as well! The volume contains 21 essays, all in English, with the material grouped into three main sections. Part I is entitled ‘Reconceptualizing Christology and Community’, Part II is on ‘Studies in Christology’, and Part III is on ‘Studies in Community’. Inevitably the essays are at times a little disparate, and many of the essays in Part I could belong quite happily in Part II. It is impossible in a short review to consider, or perhaps even mention, all the essays here. However, particularly noteworthy in Part I are the essays by Paula Fredriksen, arguing that a number of popular terms, including ‘conversion’, ‘religio licita’, ‘monotheism’ should be candidates for what she calls ‘mandatory retirement’, and by Adela Yarbro Collins on ‘How on Earth did Jesus become a God?’, engaging directly with the work of Larry Hurtado and arguing strongly for an origin for beliefs about Jesus and Jesus devotion in the conviction that Jesus was a ‘Messiah’ figure. Noteworthy in Part II are Hurtado’s own essay (focusing on the Gospel of John and the themes of ‘Remembering and Revelation’), and also that of James Dunn, arguing for an early origin for the idea of Jesus’ death being seen as a sacrifice in the ideas of the early ‘Hellenists’ (though probably not being traceable back to Jesus himself). In Part III, Segal has an informative essay on ‘Paul’s Religious Experience in the Eyes of Jewish Scholars’; other essays here include an interesting discussion of the Sadducees and the Wisdom of Ben Sira by Jonathan Klawans, and an essay by John Fitzgerald on the themes of ‘reconciliation and friendship’ in Matt. 5:21–6.

Rooted in Paradise? The Meaning of the ‘Tree of Life’ in 1 Enoch 24—25 Reconsidered

This study explores the meaning of the marvellous tree depicted in chs. 24—25 of the Book of the Watchers. Scholars generally refer to this tree as the ‘tree of life’, mentioned in the paradise story in Genesis 2—3. However, such an interpretation leaves several questions unanswered. Although a few scholars seem to be aware of the problems, a serious reconsideration of the interpretation of the tree has not yet been undertaken. This article proposes linking the tree in chs. 24—25 with wisdom. Evidence for such a conclusion is drawn from the Book of the Watchers itself, but also from other early Jewish writings, including Proverbs and the book of Sirach.

The Wisdom of Ben Sira: Studies on Tradition, Redaction, and Theology – Edited by Angelo Passaro and Giuseppe Bellia

The Wisdom of Ben Sira: Studies on Tradition, Redaction, and Theology – Edited by Angelo Passaro and Giuseppe Bellia

A Genizah secret: The Count d'Hulst and letters revealing the race to recover the lost leaves of the original Ecclesiasticus

A Genizah secret: The Count d'Hulst and letters revealing the race to recover the lost leaves of the original Ecclesiasticus

Josephus on Fate, Free Will, and Ancient Jewish Types of Compatibilism

AbstractRecent scholarship on fate and free will in ancient Judaism is characterized by a lack of precision with regard to the nature of these disputes. There is also some disagreement concerning the degree to which the disparate positions can be constructively compared with either Hellenistic philosophical approaches or later rabbinic theological ones. It is argued here that Josephus's brief typology of ancient Jewish disputes on this topic finds confirmation in other ancient Jewish literature, especially the Wisdom of Ben Sira, the sectarian Dead Sea Scrolls, and later rabbinic literature. Yet it is imperative to nuance Josephus's typology so as to avoid imposing Hellenistic philosophical systems onto ancient Jewish theological ones. These observations hold true especially when it comes to understanding the balance between fate and free will — the “compatibilism” — that characterizes the Pharisaic approach. It is rarely noticed that Josephus's accounts attribute to this group two distinct ways of balancing fate and free will. On the one hand, each of these two approaches finds distinct analogues within rabbinic literature, a fact that further confirms both Josephus's reliability and the productivity of comparing his accounts with later rabbinic traditions. On the other hand, neither of the two types of compatibilism attributed by Josephus to the Pharisees can be identified with Stoic compatibilism. Nonetheless, the term “compatibilism” remains the most appropriate term for distinguishing the Pharisaic compromises from the more extreme (but by no means uncomplicated) positions that seem to have characterized the Sadducees and Essenes in Josephus's day.

Herbert Anderson, Edward Foley, Bonnie Miller-McLemore and Robert Schreiter. MUTUALITY MATTERS: FAMILY, FAITH AND JUST LOVE

Herbert Anderson, Edward Foley, Bonnie Miller-McLemore and Robert Schreiter. MUTUALITY MATTERS: FAMILY, FAITH AND JUST LOVE. Toronto: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004.Almost sixty years ago, Simone de Beauvoir wrote: "The whole of feminine history has been man-made. . . .Men have presumed to create a feminine domain-the kingdom of life, of immanence-only to lock up women therein."3 For better or worse, the Christian faith has contributed much to such a kingdom. The world of immanence, the world of caring for the young, infirm, and old has been regarded almost universally within the Christian church as the special calling of Jesus' followers, and as feminist commentators have pointed out, this sacrificial work is mandated disproportionately to women. The authors of this anthology agree that the church has neglected justice and mutuality in its commendation of the ideal of self-sacrifice. This is especially evident within the family.These essays offer a rethinking of Christian relationships through conversations with secular movements toward equality, particularly feminism. As Paul Waddell puts it: "Mutuality matters because it is only in relationships where love is given and received, where persons are affirmed, challenged and respected, that we mirror the divine love that completes us." (p. 1 3).In many of the essays, authors look to ways that the church's lack of mutuality might be reformed through the application of secular theories. For example, James N. Poling urges that systems theory, drawn from secular counselling, be applied to the interpretation of power dynamics within a given congregation. Such theory calls upon pastors to exercise critical self-awareness with regard to their use of authority. Dianne Bergant, commenting on the familial norms delineated in the Book of Sirach, utilizes the critical tools of hermeneutics in order to "refashion the tradition,"(164) thereby challenging the abiding relevancy of Sirach's patriarchal codes.At times, criticism flows the other way, as the church is viewed as a potential balm for society's ills. Homer U. Ashby Jr., sees the Black Church as a potential source for the renewal of black families as fathers are both challenged to remain active within the children's lives and are nurtured in spiritual disciplines in order to do so by the still robust fellowship that exists in many black American churches. Bonnie Miller- McLemore's wonderful essay challenges "sloppy conceptions of mutuality" (126) which predominate in the wider culture which fail to assess adequately power structures within relationships of care. …

Anderson, Herbert, Edward Foley, Bonnie Miller-McLemore and Robert Schreiter (Eds.). MUTUALITY MATTERS: FAMILY, FAITH AND JUST LOVE

Anderson, Herbert, Edward Foley, Bonnie Miller-McLemore and Robert Schreiter (Eds.). MUTUALITY MATTERS: FAMILY, FAITH AND JUST LOVE. Toronto: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004.Almost sixty years ago, Simone de Beauvoir wrote: whole of feminine history has been man-made. ...Men have presumed to create a feminine domain-the kingdom of life, of immanence-only to lock up women therein* For better or worse, the Christian faith has contributed much to such a kingdom. The world of immanence, the world of caring for the young, infirm, and old has been regarded almost universally within the Christian church as the special calling of Jesus' followers, and as feminist commentators have pointed out, this sacrificial work is mandated disproportionately to women. The authors of this anthology agree that the church has neglected justice and in its commendation of the ideal of self-sacrifice. This is especially evident within the family. These essays offer a rethinking of Christian relationships through conversations with secular movements toward equality, particularly feminism. As Paul Waddell puts it: Mutuality matters because it is only in relationships where love is given and received, where persons are affirmed, challenged and respected, that we mirror the divine love that completes us. (p. 13).In many of the essays, authors look to ways that the church's lack of might be reformed through the application of secular theories. For example, James N. Poling urges that systems theory, drawn from secular counselling, be applied to the interpretation of power dynamics within a given congregation. Such theory calls upon pastors to exercise critical self-awareness with regard to their use of authority. Dianne Bergant, commenting on the familial norms delineated in the Book of Sirach, utilizes the critical tools of hermeneutics in order to refashion the tradition,( 164) thereby challenging the abiding relevancy of Sirach's patriarchal codes.At times, criticism flows the other way, as the church is viewed as a potential balm for society's ills. Homer U. Ashby Jr., sees the Black Church as a potential source for the renewal of black families as fathers are both challenged to remain active within the children's lives and are nurtured in spiritual disciplines in order to do so by the still robust fellowship that exists in many black American churches. Bonnie Miller- McLemore's wonderful essay challenges sloppy conceptions of mutuality (126) which predominate in the wider culture which fail to assess adequately power structures within relationships of care. …

Man of glory or first sinner? Adam in the book of Sirach

Sir 49,16 surprises the reader, because it provides a picture of the father of humanity which is different from the one we know from Genesis. Usually, this verse is explained as a reference to Adam's condition before he sinned, but this is unconvincing. The present article develops the alternative thesis that Sirach is referring to a tradition about the first man which is different, and probably more ancient, than the one we have in Genesis, a tradition concerning a glorious first man living in the garden of God. It is possible to mention some biblical and non-biblical passages as witnesses of this tradition: the Animal apocalypse in I Enoch 83–90, some texts belonging to the Qumran corpus (1QS, CD and 1QH), as well as Ez 28,11–19 and Job 15,7f. In later tradition this picture of a glorious Adam came to be neglected, and he became, from the apostle Paul on, the first sinner, blamed for the corruption of the present aeon.

Wisdom Has Built Her House: Studies on the Figure of Sophia in the Bible

Has Built Her House: Studies on the Figure of Sophia in the Bible, by Silvia Schroer. Translated by Linda Maloney and William McDonough. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2000. Pp. x + 175. $24.95. Has Built Her House is a collection of essays written by Sylvia Schroer over a period of ten years, which are all connected by, the theme of Divine Wisdom, (Hokrui or Sophia) as it appears in the different texts of both the First and Second Testaments and some apocryphal books. The author addresses a rarely treated topic (particularly in feminist circles)-the figure of Divine from a feminist perspective. She aims at showing that there have been moments in the Judeo-Christian tradition when God was appropriated as Female (cf. personified/depicted as a woman or clothed in female imagery), an exercise that, in her view, was not in any way regarded as a threat to Israelite monotheism. In this regard Schroer makes this important remark, which forms the basis of her arguments in the essays of the book: Personified Hokmah is no attack on the ancient Israelite conviction-never fundamentally questioned in the tradition-that YHWH is the God of Israel. Nor do we find any attack on the belief, explicitly formulated since the exile, that absolutely no other gods exist beside YHWH. The writers appear not to have regarded it as in any way necessary to defend a correct monotheistic idea of Hokmah. Personified is instead the completely non-polemical attempt to set a feminine image of God in place of and alongside a masculine image, linking the God of Israel to the experience and the lives especially of the women in Israel, the Most High God to the realm of household religion, and beyond that to the images and roles of the Ancient Near Eastern goddesses. (p. 30; italics added) The author thus explores this mysterious figure-a slippery figure indeed, as Personified is sometimes depicted as a companion of God, and at times is portrayed as God, and at still other times is portrayed as being subject to God (particularly in a misogynist text such as the book of Sirach)-to give us another picture of Israelite religion. Israelites, particularly in moments of crisis (e.g., the exilic and the postexilic eras), could view their God also in female terms and also freely borrowed metaphors from the neighboring religions (cf the similarities with the ancient Near Eastern and Hellenistic goddesses) without any embarrassment. Schroer (borrowing from Claudia Camp in her ground-breaking publication and the Feminine in the Book of Proverbs [Sheffield: Almond, 1985]) argues that the literary portrayal of the God of Israel in female terms cannot have arisen out of a vacuum, but is an indication of the status of the women of Israel at the time. As in many moments/periods of crisis, the exilic and postexilic periods in Israel witnessed the elevation in the status of women. As builders of houses, women took it upon their shoulders to join the males in the rebuilding of Yehud in the postexilic period. Schroer argues that it is no wonder that it was precisely in this era that the Priestly author portrays both male and female as being created in the image of God (Gen 1:26). It is in this postmonarchic era that the locus of divine revelation had shifted from the king as mediator of the covenant between the people of Israel and YHWH to the family or the household (the sphere of women). Women as managers of households (cf. the eset hayil of Prov 31:10-31), household builders, and meal preparers feature significantly in this period. It is therefore no wonder that it is in this same period that YHWH is personified as a woman-God in female imagery! In her attempt to achieve her main objective, Schroer addresses different topics. In Wisdom on the Path of Righteousness (Proverbs 8:20), she shows that the Israelite faith in the connection between action and consequence (cf. also the African mentality in this regard) is not uniquely Israelite, but ancient Near Eastern. …

"Mysticism" in the Gospel of John: An Inquiry into Its Background

Mysticism in the Gospel of John: An Inquiry into Its Background, by Jey J. Kanagaraj. JSNTSup 158. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998. Pp. 356. L55.00/$85.00. This book is a revised Ph.D. dissertation written at the University of Durham in 1995 under the supervision of James D. G. Dunn. Kanagaraj begins his study with the assumption that the Gospel of John is best understood by placing it in its religio-historical context. The question, of course, is, Into which religio-historical context? While one of the environments into which John has been placed is a so-called Johannine mysticism, a major deficiency of studies on Johannine mysticism is uncritical adoption of either of the unio mystics view or the communio mystics view. In part 1, therefore, Kanagaraj launches into a major investigation of the mystical currents prevalent in Hellenistic-Jewish circles during the time of John that may help inform the modern reader of possible influences on Johannine mysticism. He surveys the mystical attitudes prevalent in Hellenistic-Jewish circles in the late first century C.E. in the work of Philo of Alexandria and the Hermetica. While the mysticism of Philo represents a trend prevalent in the Hellenistic-Jewish circles of John's time, certain aspects of his mysticism, such as the human soul yearning to see God and to have union with him, have slender phraseological and conceptual links with John. The mysticism described in the Hermetica is concerned with the knowledge of God and union with God and, while striking, does not supply the conceptual milieu for the author of John either. If the Hellenistic-Jewish mystical milieu does not give adequate answer to the mysticism present in John, then, according to Kanagaraj, it is to be found in Palestinian mysticism. Hence, in part 2 of the book, Kanagaraj engages in an elaborate exploration of Merkabah mysticism described in the later Hekhalot literature. After isolating the mystical features that emerge from the Hekhalot literature that inform the mystical experiences of certain Judeans from the second to the seventh centuries C.E., Kanagaraj turns his attention to finding evidence of Merkabah mysticism in such pre-Christian writings as the Wisdom of Ben Sira (Sir 49:8; 3:21-23) and the Qumran texts (4QShirShabb; 4Q403 1 ii 1-16; 4Q404 20 ii 21-22; 4QMessAr; or 4Q534). Next Kanagaraj looks for evidence of Merkabah mysticism in the Christian era and finds it in the heavenly ascents of Paul (1 Cor 12), Isaiah (Ascen. Isa. 6-11), and Moses (Memar Marqah; Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum). Moreover, Kanagaraj isolates several apocalyptic books of the late first century that he argues yield additional evidence for a Merkabah mystical experience at the time of John (1 En. 37-71; 2 Enoch; 4 Ezra; Apocalypse of Abraham; Testament of Abraham; IOMelch; Revelation). Given that Johanan ben Zakkai was a contemporary of John, Kanagaraj investigates four versions of Johanan's Merkabah experience as recounted by one of his disciples, Eleazar b. 'Arakh, and concludes that Johanan and his school did practice Merkabah mysticism by means of Merkabah exegesis. This investigation reveals that during the pre- and post-Christian periods there was increasing interest in Merkabah visionary experience and that such experience was also bound up with a series of biblical texts, particularly with Ezek 1; 8; Isa 6; and Dan 7. …