Frequency Of Eating Occasions Research Articles

P14-035-23 Eating Occasion Frequency for Infants and Young Children Differs From That of Older Children and Adults: Data From the 2016 Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study (FITS)

P14-035-23 Eating Occasion Frequency for Infants and Young Children Differs From That of Older Children and Adults: Data From the 2016 Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study (FITS)

Dietary Standardisation in a Nutrient plus Exercise Intervention: Derivation, Implementation, and Evaluation

The objective was to devise and implement a dietary standardisation protocol for use in nutrient plus exercise intervention studies, and to report participant adherence to, and acceptability of same. The context was a nutrient plus exercise intervention study undertaken by resistance-trained men (18 to 35y). Participants’ habitual, seven-day, weighed dietary intake records informed the dietary standardisation protocol. Participants received a six-day meal plan that was prescribed relative to their body mass and provided 35 kcal∙kg-1∙d-1 comprising 2.0 g∙kg-1∙d-1 protein (including 0.33 g∙kg-1 of dietary protein supplement), 4.5 g∙kg-1∙d-1 carbohydrate, and 1.0 g∙kg-1∙d-1 fat. Apportioning of total protein intake was evenly distributed across six eating occasions (EOs), at three-hour intervals during waking hours. Median (25th-75th percentile) participant adherence to the prescribed meal plan was 100 (99-100)% for energy, carbohydrate and fat intakes, 100 (100–100)% for protein intake and frequency of EOs consumed, and 97 (93–100)% for distribution of EOs consumed. On study completion, 10 participants (45%) expressed that the standardised diet was easy to follow. Ten participants (45%) indicated activities of daily living as the primary challenge to adherence. The offered dietary standardisation (i.e. a protocol introduced 72 hours before the intervention study and a standardised diet) was effective in minimising the variability of dietary intake among participants undertaking a nutrient plus exercise intervention. The dietary standardisation resulted in high participant adherence and was well accepted.

P024 Adolescent Independent Eating Occasion Frequency and Dietary Intake by Personal and Household Characteristics

<h3>Background</h3> Independent eating occasions (iEOs) among adolescents were associated with poorer diet quality and overweight status in previous studies. Little is known about how iEOs (frequency and food groups/food types consumed) vary by personal (e.g., age, sex, race, ethnicity) and household (e.g., food security) characteristics and other factors (e.g., school learning format - online vs. remote). <h3>Objective</h3> To determine associations among iEOs (frequency and food groups/food types consumed) and key personal and household characteristics among low-income adolescents in the US. <h3>Study Design, Settings, Participants</h3> A US-based online cross-sectional survey was administered to a national sample of low-income adolescents who reported iEOs and their parents (n = 622 dyads) from Qualtrics survey panelists (November/December 2021). About half were 11-12 years (44%), boys (53%), non-Hispanic White (44%), and from food-insecure households (52%). About two-thirds (68%) reported attending school in person. An adapted 27-item FLASHE (Family Life, Activity, Sun, Health, Eating) Study food frequency questionnaire was used to quantify mean daily intake frequencies of food groups/types consumed overall and during iEOs. <h3>Measurable Outcome/Analysis</h3> Chi-square tests were used to compare iEO frequency by demographic characteristics. Linear regression analyses were used to determine associations among mean iEO and overall daily food group intake frequencies (dependent variables) and iEO frequency (independent variable) adjusting for demographic and household characteristics. <h3>Results</h3> Frequency of iEOs was ≤ 3-4 times/week (46%) and ≥ 5-6 times/week (54%), with no differences by age group, sex, or in-person school attendance. Frequency of IEOs was positively associated with intake frequencies for all food groups both during IEOs and overall. Higher daily iEO intake frequencies of sugar-sweetened beverages, fast food/convenience foods, and all detrimental foods were also associated with food insecurity and non-Hispanic White race. <h3>Conclusions</h3> More frequent iEOs were associated with greater daily intake frequency of less healthful and healthful foods during iEOs and overall. Nutrition education could focus on increasing intake of healthful foods during iEOs for food-insecure youth. <h3>Funding</h3> USDA

Joint association of meal frequency and diet quality with metabolic syndrome in Iranian adults

BackgroundMetabolic syndrome (MetS) is a common complication that has been shown in various studies to be related to the frequency and timing of eating. We aimed to evaluate the relationship between meal timing and frequency with diet quality and prevalence of MetS.Study designCross-sectional.MethodsWe analyzed data from 850 adults (20 to 59 years) and divided the participants into different categories in terms of frequency of eating occasions (EO) (5 ≥ , 6–7 and 7 <), meal (2 ≥ and 3) and snack (2 ≥ , 3 and 4 ≤) in a day. Daily food consumption was assessed using the structured three 24-h recalls. The quality of diet we calculated using the food quality score (FQS). Metabolic syndrome was defined based on the guidelines of the national cholesterol education program adult treatment panel III (ATP III). The covariates-adjusted relationships between exposures and outcomes were investigated using a logistic regression test and two-way ANOVA.ResultsThe overall prevalence of MetS in participants was 34.2%. The average FQS was 28.0. Increased frequency of EOs and snacks was related to the higher prevalence of MetS ((OR, 1.72; 95% CI, 1.24, 2.37; P < 0.01) and (OR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.07, 1.68; P, 0.01), respectively). The adjusted mean of FQS was not significantly different between the EO as well as meals and snack categories. The joint association of EO frequency and snack frequency with diet quality showed a higher chance of having MetS ( (OR, 2.36; 95% CI, 1.19, 4.66; P, 0.01 and (OR, 1.68; 95% CI, 1.06, 2.68; P,0.02), respectively). Also, we observed a higher mean of high density level cholesterol in people with the highest FQS and lowest EO frequency (P,0.02).ConclusionOur findings suggest that the EO and snack frequency may be associated with the higher chance of MetS. We also found when the frequency of EO increases, the beneficial associations of the diet quality were overshadowed. To confirm our findings, well designed randomised clinical trials are needed.

The relevance of restrained eating behavior for circadian eating patterns in adolescents.

BackgroundRestrained Eating, i.e. the tendency to restrict dietary intake to control body-weight, often emerges during adolescence and may result in changes in circadian eating patterns.ObjectiveThe objective of the present investigation was to determine the cross-sectional relevance of restrained eating for characteristics of circadian eating pattern in adolescents and whether changes in restrained eating are accompanied by concurrent changes in circadian eating pattern over the course of adolescence.MethodsTwo questionnaires assessing restrained eating (Score 0–30) with parallel 3-day weighed dietary records from two different time points were available from 209 (♂:101, ♀:108) 11–18 year old adolescents of the DONALD study. Mixed linear regression models were used to analyze whether restrained eating was associated with eating occasion frequency, snack frequency and morning and evening energy intake [in % of daily energy intake, %E]. Linear regression models were used to examine whether changes in restrained eating were associated with changes in the mentioned variables.ResultsAmong girls, greater restrained eating was cross-sectionally associated with higher morning energy intake (p = 0.03). Further, there was a tendency towards lower evening energy intake with higher levels of restrained eating for the whole sample (p = 0.06). No cross-sectional associations were found with eating occasion or snack frequency. Each one-point increase in restrained eating during adolescence was related to a concurrent decrease in eating occasion frequency by 0.04 (95% CI -0.08; -0.01, p = 0.02) and in evening energy intake by 0.36%E (95% CI -0.70; -0.03, p = 0.04). A tendency towards decreasing snack frequency with increasing restrained eating was observed (β = -0.03, 95% CI -0.07; 0.00, p = 0.07). No association was found between changes in restrained eating and concurrent changes in morning energy intake.ConclusionWe found indications for cross-sectional and prospective associations between restrained eating and chronobiological aspects of food intake in adolescents. Our results suggest that restrained eating should be considered a relevant determinant of circadian eating patterns.

Temporal eating patterns: a latent class analysis approach

BackgroundThere is some evidence that large energy intakes towards the end of the day are associated with adverse health outcomes, however, studies of temporal eating patterns across the day are rare. This study examines the temporal eating patterns of Australian adults using latent class analysis (LCA), as a novel approach.MethodsDietary data (n = 2402 men and n = 2840 women, ≥19 years) from two 24-h recalls collected during the 2011–12 Australian National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey were analyzed. LCA was performed to identify distinct temporal eating patterns based on whether or not an eating occasion (EO) occurred within each hour of the day. F and adjusted-chi2 tests assessed differences in sociodemographic and eating patterns (e.g., meal, snack and EO frequency) between latent classes.ResultsThree patterns, labelled “Conventional” (men: 43%, women: 41%), “Later lunch” (men: 34%, women: 34%) and “Grazing” (men: 23%, women: 25%) were identified. Men and women with a “Grazing” pattern were significantly younger (P < 0.001) and a higher proportion were from major cities (P < 0.01) and were not married (men only, P = 0.01), compared to the “Conventional” and “Later lunch” patterns. The “Grazing” pattern was also characterized by a higher EO frequency (P < 0.01) and snack frequency (P < 0.001) and consumption of a higher proportion of total energy intake from snacks but a lower proportion of total energy intake from meals (P < 0.001).ConclusionsThis study identified three distinct temporal eating patterns in adults that varied by age, EO frequency, snack frequency and energy intake pattern. LCA is a useful approach to capture differences in EO timing across the day. Future research should examine associations between temporal eating patterns and health.

Age and time trends in eating frequency and duration of nightly fasting of German children and adolescents.

To describe age and time trends in eating occasion frequency (EOF), meal frequency (MF), snack frequency (SF) and duration of nightly fasting (DNF) in German children and adolescents. 9757 3-day dietary records of 1246 3-18-year-old participants of the open DONALD cohort study, collected 1985-2014, were analyzed for age and time trends using polynomial mixed-effects regression models. Eating occasions were either assigned to meals or snacks (>10 or ≤10% of daily total energy intake per eating occasion). DNF was defined as the longest time span without energy intake within one night. EOF, MF and SF decreased with age (EOF: linear, quadratic, cubic trend p<0.0001; MF: linear trend p<0.0001; SF: linear, quadratic trend p<0.0001). Time trend analyses revealed a wavelike time course for EOF (linear trend p=0.0580, quadratic trend=0.0039, cubic trend=0.0015) and SF (linear trend p=0.0055, quadratic trend p=0.0005, cubic trend p=0.0003). MF slightly increased until 2000 and decreased thereafter (linear trend p=0.0012, quadratic trend p=0.0047). Effect sizes of time trends in EOF, MF and SF were small. Boys' and girls' DNF decreased with age (in both: linear, quadratic, cubic trend p<0.0001) and increased over the study period (boys: linear trend p=0.0011, interaction of age and time p<0.0001; girls: linear trend p=0.0167). EOF, MF and SF were higher in children than in adolescents, but, in contrast to other studies remained fairly stable over the study period. Decreasing DNF with age could reflect decreasing sleep durations. Additionally, DNF increased over the study period, probably due to an increase in breakfast skipping.

Characterizing eating patterns: a comparison of eating occasion definitions

To date, many approaches have been used to define eating occasions (EOs). A standard definition for EOs is required to facilitate further research. In this study, we examined the influence of differing definitions of EOs on the characterization of eating patterns. Cross-sectional dietary data from two 24-h recalls collected during the 2011-12 Australian National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (n = 5242 adults, aged ≥19 y) were analyzed. Eight definitions were applied: participant-identified, time-of-day, and 6 neutral definitions (individual EOs separated by different time intervals and/or an additional energy criterion of 210 kJ). Frequency of and total energy intake from meals, snacks, and all EOs were estimated, as appropriate. Differences were tested by using F tests, stratified by sex and age group. Agreement between different definitions of meal and snack frequencies was assessed by using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). For each definition, linear regression was used to estimate the proportion of variance in total energy intake (kJ) and amount of food intake (g) predicted by frequency of EOs and meals and snacks. Among both sexes and across all age groups, mean frequencies of meals differed between the participant-identified and time-of-day definitions (mean difference range = 0.1-0.3; P < 0.001). There were statistically significant differences between mean frequencies of EOs across the 6 neutral definitions (P < 0.001). There was good agreement for snacks (men: ICC = 0.89; women: ICC = 0.87) but not meal frequencies (men: ICC = 0.38; women: ICC = 0.36) between the participant-identified and time-of-day definitions. The neutral definition (15-min time interval plus energy criterion) best predicted variance in total energy intake (R(2) range = 19.3-27.8). Different approaches to the definition of EOs affect how eating patterns are characterized, with the neutral definition best predicting variance in total energy intake. Further research that examines how different EO definitions affect associations with health outcomes is needed to develop consensus on a standard EO definition.

The Influence of Weekday Eating Patterns on Energy Intake and BMI Among Female Elementary School Personnel

Many health practitioners recommend eating small, frequent meals for weight loss, yet the relationship of eating patterns, such as eating occasion frequency (EOF), to energy intake and body weight is controversial. Broad-based efforts to promote worksite wellness programs increase the importance of this issue, as many work environments inherently restrict eating patterns. The eating patterns of school personnel are understudied, but are of particular interest, not only because they have limited eating opportunities during the day but also because their diet and weight outcomes are likely to influence behaviors of a much larger population. We examined relationships between weekday EOF and energy intake and BMI among female elementary school personnel in 22 schools in a suburban county of southeastern Louisiana. Two 24-h dietary recalls were administered to randomly-selected employees (n = 329) on nonconsecutive days by registered dietitians. Measured heights and weights were used to calculate BMI (weight/height(2)). On average, employees consumed 2.2 of their total 5.9 meals and snacks during the school day, accounting for 37% of daily energy. In multiple regression models controlling for demographic and health variables, EOF as well as separate counts of meal and snack frequency were each positively and significantly associated with energy intake. However, neither the number of meals, snacks, nor overall EOF was associated with BMI. The proportion of energy consumed during the school day and the positive association of weekday EOF with energy intake suggest an important role for worksite wellness programs that target the dietary improvement of elementary school personnel.

Comparison of energy and nutrient intakes among meals and snacks of adolescent males

Background Eating behaviors developed during adolescence can have immediate health implications and influence future chronic disease risk. The objectives of this study were to determine and compare the distribution of energy and nutrient intakes among meals and snacks, and relate eating occasion frequency to body mass index (BMI) of adolescent males. Methods Healthy adolescent males ( n = 180) completed 3-day food records. Following analysis for energy and nutrient intakes, 3-day averages and frequencies were computed for all meals and snacks. Results Dinner was the largest contributor of energy, macronutrients, cholesterol, dietary fiber, and sodium, whereas both dinner and breakfast were the largest contributors of calcium and iron. On average, subjects consumed 1.63 snacks/day, with 77% consuming ≥1 snack/day. BMI was significantly greater and energy intake was significantly lower in subjects having ≤3 eating occasions/day relative to 4 or ≥6 eating occasions/day. The 26% of subjects classified as inconsistent breakfast consumers had significantly higher BMIs and lower iron intakes relative to consistent breakfast consumers. Conclusions This study provides valuable information regarding eating occasion frequency and contribution of meals and snacks to energy and nutrient intakes in adolescent males. Such information could be used to improve nutrition education programs for adolescents aimed at chronic disease prevention.