Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains Research Articles

Interrelationships among different grain characteristics of wheat grown under optimum and late sowning date conditions in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic plains of India

Wheat growth has been severely affected by increases in global temperature. The Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains of India face similar constraints due to the traditional wheat–rice cropping system where wheat planting is often delayed leading to high temperature induced terminal heat stress. Grain characters like grain length, width, area along with starch synthesis are affected severely during heat stress. Considering the importance of grain traits, we screened the response of 55 wheat genotypes under terminal heat stress conditions to ten grain characteristics. We found that the means of all the grain traits were reduced in heat stress conditions. The effect of heat stress shows a significantly reduced grain width and perimeter, but the extent of damage is less on different grain starch characteristics e.g., grain starch area (GSA), grain starch length (GSL) and grain starch volume (GSV). Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that grain starch area and grain volume are the best predictors of yield under optimum sowing date conditions whereas, grain width is the best predictor under late sowing date conditions. Interrelationship studies among ten grain characters showed that the genotypes with higher levels of grain starch characteristics (GSA, GSL and GSV) in combination with the five grain size characters (grain length, grain width, grain perimeter, grain area, A/B-type starch granules) under late sowing date conditions should be promoted for the cultivation of wheat in heat stress prone areas. The present study identified and recommends some heat tolerant wheat genotypes in terms of higher yield and grain starch characteristics namely, CRPW-33, CRPW-17, CRPW-12, CRPW-126 and CRPW-21.

Modified strip tillage blades for two-wheel tractor seed drills improves maize crop establishment under conservation agriculture

Two-wheel tractors (2WTs) are widely used by resource-poor farmers to prepare land in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains (EIGP). This paper demonstrates that improved tillage blade design can enhance maize crop establishment under strip tillage, which falls under the rubric of conservation agriculture (CA). In order to achieve this aim, it is necessary to identify appropriate blade design and rotational speed for power tiller operated seeders, or PTOS, which can be attached to 2WTs and that are increasingly popular in the EIGP. We conducted experiments over two years in two locations in the EIGP within Bangladesh with loam and clay loam soils, respectively. Four blades designed with varying tip angles and five levels of rotational speed were compared with commercially available C-shaped blades sold with 2WTs. Torque and power requirements for strip tillage decreased with decreasing blade tip angle and rotational speed. The best combination of blade design and rotational speed was found with a 15° blade tip angle at 320 RPM. This combination resulted in higher furrow cross sectional area, more soil backfill with appropriately sized soil aggregates, and better seeding depth than C-shaped and 45° tip angle blades. These characteristics also facilitated improved crop establishment on both soil types. Our results indicate that strip-till maize establishment can be improved in Bangladesh by substituting commercially-available C-shaped blades with a 15° blade tip angle at appropriate 320 RPM, though machinery operators will require educational efforts to learn how to fine-tune RPM to improve crop establishment and achieve more sustainable crop establishment systems.

Efficacy of Herbicides on Weed Control in Zero-tilled Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in the Eastern Indo-gangetic Plains

Background: Field experiments/ On Farm Trial (OFT) were conducted at Farmers field in village Hasanchak and Agwanpur under the ICAR- Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Barh, Patna during the winter season (Rabi). The basic aim of experiment was to find out the effective method of weed control in Zero- tilled wheat through the application of herbicide. Methods: The experiment was laid in Randomized Block design (RBD) in 2014-2015, replicated 4 times (Farmers field) with 5 treatments viz., 2,4-D, ethyl ester 2.00 kg ha-1 at 25 days after sowing (DAS) fb one hand weeding (Conventional tillage-Farmer practices) at 55 DAS, Sulfosulfuron 75% WP 25 g ha-1, Metsulfuron 20% WP @ 20 g ha-1 at 25 DAS, Sulfosuluron 75% WP + Metsulfuron 20% WP @ 40 g ha-1 at 25 DAS and control (Unweeded). Result: Sulfosuluron 75% WP + Metsulfuron 20% WP @ 40 g ha-1 at 25 days after sowing provided effective control of grassy and broadleaf weeds and recorded less dry weight and highest (91%) weed control efficiency (WCE). Herbicide Sulfosulfuron 75% WP 25 g ha-1 and Metsulfuron 20% WP @ 20 g ha-1 controlled only grassy and broadleaf weeds, respectively. 2,4-D, ethyl ester 2.00 kg ha-1 fb one hand weeding (Conventional tillage-Farmer practices) recorded higher weed dry weight and less weed control efficiency (WCE). Significantly higher grain yield (4280 kg ha-1) was recorded under Sulfosuluron 75% WP + Metsulfuron 20% WP @ 40 g ha-1 at 25 days after sowing followed by Metsulfuron 20% WP 20 g ha-1, Sulfosulfuron 75% WP 25 g ha-1, 2,4-D, 2.00 kg ha-1 fb one hand weeding (Farmer practices). Significantly higher net return (Rs. 48145 ha-1) and B:C ratio (2.93) were recorded under Sulfosuluron 75% WP + Metsulfuron 20% WP @ 40 g ha-1 at 25 days after sowing.

Influence of tillage based crop establishment and residue management practices on soil quality indices and yield sustainability in rice-wheat cropping system of Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains

Rice-wheat cropping system (RWCS) is the most important system occupying around 26 M ha spread over the Indo Gangetic Plains in South Asia and China. Many long-term trials were led to assess the agronomic productivity and economic profitability of various combinations of conservation agricultural (CA) practices (zero tillage, residue management and crop establishment) in RWCS of Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains (EIGP) of India. The purpose of this study was to investigate the best management practices involving different tillage-based crop establishment and residue retention techniques and their contribution to agricultural system sustainability through improvement in soil health by developing soil quality index (SQI). We have used SQI as an instrument based on physical [macro aggregate stability (MAS), available water capacity (AWC) and soil penetration resistance (SPR)], chemical [soil organic carbon (OC), available N, available P and available K] and biological [microbial biomass carbon (MBC), fluorescein diacetate (FDA) and dehydrogenase activity (DHA)] properties of soil, because these are very useful indicators of soil’s functions for agronomic productivity and soil fertility. Soil properties like MAS, OC, MBC, FDA and DHA were higher by 47, 18, 56, 48 and 53%, respectively, under ZTDSR-ZTW (T7: Zero-till direct seeded rice - Zero-till wheat) than RPTR-CTW (T1: Random puddled transplanted rice - Conventional till broadcasted wheat), at 0-10 cm. CA based treatment T7 also recorded lower SPR (126 N cm-1). SQI for different treatments were calculated by performing principal component analysis based on the total data set method. The higher system rice equivalent yield of 12.41 t ha-1 was observed at SQI value of 0.90 at 0-10 cm and 0.86 at 10-20 cm in T7. It can be concluded that crop residue retention on the surface with zero tillage is beneficial for the sustainability and productivity of the RWCS in EIGP of India.

Portfolios of Climate Smart Agriculture Practices in Smallholder Rice-Wheat System of Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains—Crop Productivity, Resource Use Efficiency and Environmental Foot Prints

The conventional tillage based rice-wheat system (RWS) in Indo-genetic plains (IGP) of South Asia is facing diverse challenges like increase in production cost and erratic climatic events. This results in stagnated crop productivity and declined farm profitability with increased emission of greenhouse gases. Therefore, 3-year multi-location farmer’s participatory research trial was conducted to assess the impact of crop establishment and residue management techniques on crop productivity, economic profitability and environmental footprints in RWS. The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of combinations of improved agronomic technologies compared to farmer’s practices (FP) on crop productivity, profitability, resource use efficiency and environmental footprints. The experiment had six scenarios that is, S1-Farmer’s practice; Conventional tillage (CT) without residue; S2-CT with residue, S3- Reduced tillage (RT) with residue + Recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF); S4-RT/zero tillage (ZT) with residue + RDF, S5-ZT with residue + RDF + green seeker + tensiometer + information & communication technology + crop insurance and S6- S5 + site specific nutrient management. Climate smart agriculture practices (CSAPs; mean of S4, S5 and S6) increase system productivity and farm profitability by 10.5% and 29.4% (on 3 yrs’ mean basis), whereas, improved farmers practices (mean of S2 and S3) resulted in only 3.2% and 5.3% increments compared to farmer’s practice (S1), respectively. On an average, CSAPs saved 39.3% of irrigation water and enhanced the irrigation and total water productivity by 53.9% and 18.4% than FP, respectively. In all the 3-years, CSAPs with high adaptive measures enhanced the energy-use-efficiency (EUE) and energy productivity (EP) by 43%–54% and 44%–61%, respectively than FP. In our study, global warming potential (GWP), GHG emission due to consumption energy and greenhouse gas intensity were recorded lower by 43%, 56% and 59% in Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) with high adaptive measures than farmers practices (3652.7 kg CO2 eq. ha−1 yr−1, 722.2 kg CO2 eq. ha−1 yr−1 and 718.7 Mg kg−1 CO2 eq. ha−1 yr−1). The findings of the present study revealed that CSA with adaption of innovative measures (S6) improved 3-year mean system productivity by 10.5%, profitability by 29.4%, water productivity and energy productivity by 18.3% and 48.9%, respectively than FP. Thus, the results of our 3-year farmer’s participatory study suggest that in a RW system, climate smart agriculture practices have better adaptive capacity and could be a feasible option for attaining higher yields, farm profitability, energy-use efficiency and water productivity with sustained/improved environmental quality in smallholder production systems of Eastern IGP of India and other similar agro-ecologies of South Asia. Finally, the adoption of these CSAPs should be promoted in the RW rotation of IGP to ensure food security, restoration of soil health and to mitigate climate change, the key sustainable development goals (SDGs).

Farm-level exploration of economic and environmental impacts of sustainable intensification of rice-wheat cropping systems in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic plains

• Farms with higher resource endowment had larger outcome spaces. • Optimization results highlight the trade-off between profit and water use. • Environmental objectives could be improved with re-allocation of current crops. • Sustainable intensification with mung bean was not beneficial for all farm types. Agriculture in rural Bihar needs to maintain its productivity while enhancing its biophysical sustainability. To sustainably intensify the predominant rice-wheat systems, alternative cropping patterns with short duration legumes, planted in the usually fallow summer season, were developed. The addition of the legume ensures near-permanent soil cover, breaks the cereal-cereal cycle, and aims to improve soil quality while yielding between 0.6 and 1.2 Mg ha -1 of protein-rich dry matter. On-station experiments previously demonstrated the agronomical feasibility of the alternative cropping patterns while this study addresses the implications of such field-level changes at farm-level for different types of smallholders. We used the model FarmDESIGN to 1) assess current farm performance, 2) explore options to rearrange cropping patterns and 3) assess the impact of cropping patterns with mung bean. We found diverse farm performances, indicating a heterogenous farming community. Re-arranging current cropping patterns gave all farms possibilities to save water, increase soil organic matter content and decrease nitrogen losses but showed trade-offs with operating profit. Higher resource endowed farms had most potential to favourably rearrange the farm and improve multiple performance indicators. Two out of the five farms assessed did not benefit from including the alternative cropping patterns. We conclude that the impact of innovations greatly depends on farm type and current farm features and performance, described by a farm typology.

Energy performance of cookstoves and emission factors in rural areas of Eastern Indo Gangetic Plains (EIGP)

Biomass consumption, energy performance of cookstoves and emission factor of cattle dung cake, used as a main source of energy, in EIGP was evaluated. Average biomass consumption was recorded as 2.46 kg/capita/day indicating 1.5-fold higher fuel consumption in the region compared to other parts of the country. Use of improved cookstove could, however, save 13% biomass use compared to traditional stove besides 32.5 kJ of energy for cooking of one kg of food. On average, 56.70–67.75 kJ of human energy is required to prepare one kg of cattle dung cake. Of the total energy requirements, women folk contribute the maximum (>45%), followed by male counterpart (>30%) and rest is shared by children of 9–12 years of age. Labour energy expenditure was, however, significantly low for cattle dung cake preparation compared to energy involved in firewood collection. Emission factors for hazardous gaseous pollutants ranged from 464.30–548.80, 19.1–34.30 and 0.981–1.455 g/kg, respectively, for CO2, CO and HC. With increasing ratio of crop biomass, the emission factor for CO2 decreased, irrespective of biomass used. Based on the biomass consumption and emission factors for pollutants, lentil stalk and paddy straw have been found suitable substrate for cattle dung cake preparation.

Fertigation Effects on Nutrient Use Efficiency, Energy Productivity, and Economics of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Cultivation in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia

ABSTRACT Drip fertigation has potential to reduce fertilizer dose in comparison to surface application in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) by increasing its’ use efficiency in the Eastern Gangetic plains of South Asia. A long-term field experiment (2007–2013) was conducted on Inceptisol to evaluate 100% of the soil test-based recommended fertilizer dose (RDF; N:P2O5:K2O applied at 500:250:750 g palm−1 year−1) in soil with ring basin irrigation as conventional, 100%, 75%, 50%, 25%, and 0% of the RDF through drips. The fertigation level of 75% RDF resulted in 32%, 19%, 39%, and 16% higher copra yield, energy productivity, net return, and benefit-cost ratio, respectively, over conventional. Increasing trend of nutrient use efficiency was observed with decreasing dose of N, P and K. Use efficiencies decreased from 50.4 kg copra kg−1 N, 230.7 kg copra kg−1 P, and 40.5 kg copra kg −1 K (with 25% of the RDF through drip) to 6.1 kg copra kg−1 N, 27.8 kg copra kg−1 P, and 4.9 kg copra kg−1 K (with 100% RDF through ring basin irrigation). Fertigation with 75% RDF in drip had the highest copra yield (3.19 t ha−1), energy output (206082 MJ ha−1), energy productivity (187 g copra MJ−1), net returns (US $ 3073 ha−1), and benefit–cost ratio (2.36) compared to others.

Space-Based Observations on The Impact of COVID-19-Induced Lockdown on Aerosols over India

The lockdown period in India due to COVID-19 came into effect from 25 March 2020 onwards. The present study analyses the changes and trends in aerosol optical depth (AOD) levels during the last few months and particularly during lockdown period. MODIS observations showed an average reduction of 20-37% in aerosol loading during the lockdown period (25 March-3 May 2020), compared to 2017-2019 across India. A clear-cut and drastic reduction in AOD (which includes both PM2.5 and PM10) was observed at many places across India, in particular over North India (46%), eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains (42%) and peninsular India (30%). Maximum decrease in AOD was seen during 25 March to 5 April 2020 with values as low as 0.18-0.22, which are 72-87% lower than the February-March 2020 level. AOD then slightly increased in the third week of April due to stubble burning and a few cloudy days, and then fell subsequently. Ground measurements on air pollutants at selected Indian cities revealed reduction of 40-50% in surface concentration prior to the lockdown period. Thus, study shows a clear-cut improvement in air quality leading to significant improvement in visibility and more blue skies.

Zero-tillage wheat provides stable yield and economic benefits under diverse growing season climates in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains

ABSTRACT Sustainably enhancing wheat productivity in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) is vital for ensuring future food security. While in controlled field trials zero-tillage (ZT) wheat has demonstrated considerable yield benefits, empirical assessments of the performance stability of the practice in farmers’ fields under varying climatic conditions are lacking. Given progressive climate change, this constitutes an important knowledge gap which we address with a unique panel dataset from 961 farm households in Bihar, India, spanning two favourable and two less favourable growing seasons. We employ an endogenous switching regression (ESR) framework to derive unbiased estimates of the expected impacts of ZT on wheat yields and production costs among the farming population (average treatment effect, ATE). The prevailing ZT practices led to significant yield gains in three out of the four years, notably in the less favourable seasons. Overall, the estimated yield ATE was 660 kg ha−1. More importantly from the farmers’ perspective, ZT led to significant cost savings in all four seasons, commensurate to a 5% increase in average total household incomes. We conclude that ZT for wheat in Bihar provides tangible and consistent benefits to farmers. Policy-makers in Bihar and adjacent states should continue to strongly support its adoption at scale.

Factors Constraining Timely Sowing of Wheat as an Adaptation to Climate Change in Eastern India

ABSTRACTClimate change is predicted to negatively impact wheat yields across northern India, primarily as a result of increased heat stress during grain filling at the end of the growing season. One way that farmers may adapt is by sowing their wheat earlier to avoid this terminal heat stress. However, many farmers in the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) sow their wheat later than is optimal, likely leading to yield reductions. There is limited documentation of why farmers sow their wheat late and the potential constraints to early sowing. Our study uses data from 256 farmers in Arrah, Bihar, a region in the eastern IGP with late wheat sowing, to identify the socioeconomic, biophysical, perceptional, and management factors influencing wheat-sowing-date decisions. Despite widespread awareness of climate change, we found that farmers did not adopt strategies to adapt to warming temperatures and that wheat-sowing dates were not influenced by perceptions of climate change. Instead, we found that the most important factors influencing wheat-sowing-date decisions were irrigation type and cropping decisions during the monsoon season prior to the winter wheat growing season. Specifically, we found that using canal irrigation instead of groundwater irrigation, planting rice in the monsoon season, transplanting rice, and transplanting rice later during the monsoon season were all associated with delayed wheat sowing. These results suggest that there are system constraints to sowing wheat on time, and these factors must be addressed if farmers are to adapt wheat-sowing-date decisions in the face of warming temperatures.

Identification of effective sources for spot blotch and stripe rust in barley

Stripe rust and spot blotch are major biotic constraints in yield maximization in barley. Stripe rust is caused by fungus, Puccinia striiformis f. sp. hordei and wide spread in northern hills, foot hills and in the states of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. Spot blotch ( Bipolaris sorokiniana ) is one of the major diseases in north eastern Indo-Gangetic plains having warm and humid climate. The resistant sources for stripe rust are available but the genetic resources for spot blotch are indeed meagre. Therefore, the present investigation was carried out to identify combined sources for stripe rust and spot blotch in barley. The experiments for stripe rust were conducted at Durgapura and Karnal during 2015-16 to 2017-18. While, spot blotch evaluation was carried out for two years at Faizabad and Karnal centres during 2015-16 and 2016-17. The indigenous genotypes namely DWRB127, DWRB128, DWRB136, DWRB137, DWRB143, RD2786 and Dolma showed resistance for stripe rust. Based upon stripe rust and spot blotch reactions the genotypes namely, DWRB136, Notch-2, Orosus and Bella Union were found promising. Similarly, the cross combination viz., Lbiran/Una80//Lignee640/3/Bbsc/4/Chamico and P.sto/3/Libran/Una80//Lignee640/4/Bllu/5/ Petunia1 were also considered promising for barley stripe rust and spot blotch. Therefore, these identified genotypes are suggested to be incorporated in future barley breeding programmes for gainfully utilization. DOI.10.25174/2582-2675/2020/88973

Intercomparison of crop establishment methods for improving yield and profitability in the rice-wheat system of Eastern India

Conventionally managed rice-wheat systems of the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains (E-IGP) that rely on soil puddling for rice and intensive tillage for wheat are low-yielding and resource-inefficient, leading to low profitability. While a host of alternative tillage and crop establishment (TCE) methods have been advocated as solutions for sustainably enhancing productivity and profitability, few systematic comparisons of these methods are reported. To address this gap, a three-year field study was conducted in Bihar, India with the goal of identifying TCE methods for rice-wheat systems that are high yielding, less resource-intensive, and more profitable. The following systems were evaluated: 1) puddled transplanted rice (PTR) followed by (fb) conventional tillage wheat (CTW) or zero-tillage wheat (ZTW); 2) machine transplanted rice in non-puddled soil (MTR) fb ZTW; 3) the system of rice intensification (SRI) fb system of wheat intensification (SWI); and 4) dry-seeded rice (DSR) fb ZTW. Rice cultivar duration (short versus medium-duration) was incorporated as a subplot treatment in all systems. Rice yields were similar with all methods, except DSR yield was 11 % lower and MTR yield was 7% higher than PTR in the third year. Cost of production was US$ 149 and 77 ha−1 lower in DSR and MTR, respectively, and US$ 84 ha-1 higher in SRI than PTR. The gross margin and benefit-cost (B:C) ratio was highest in MTR followed by DSR and lowest in SRI. In wheat, ZT resulted in a higher yield than CTW, especially when ZTW was cultivated after non-puddled rice (e.g., DSR or MTR). ZTW reduced production costs by US$ 69 ha-1, whereas SWI increased it by US$ 139 ha-1 relative to CTW. The higher yield and lower cost of production resulted in a higher gross margin (US$ 82−355 ha−1 and US$ 129−409 ha−1 higher than CTW and SWI, respectively) and a higher B:C ratio in ZTW treatments than CTW and SWI. At the system level, MTR or DSR followed by ZTW had both superior crop yields and consistently higher gross margins (US $133 to 382 ha-1) than other practices. On the other hand, the SRI fb SWI system had no yield advantage and poorer economic performance than conventional practices. In all systems, the inclusion of a medium-duration rice hybrid resulted in higher rice and system yields. These results suggest that significant gains in profitability are possible with emerging TCE practices in rice-wheat systems, but alternatives such as the SRI and SWI will likely erode farmer incomes.

Institutional Structure, Participation, and Devolution in Water Institutions of Eastern India

The paper examines the nature and development of the participatory water institutions in the eastern Indo-Gangetic plains of India, focusing on the aspects of structure, participation, and devolution. Though the physical development of irrigation has made considerable progress in India, the proper management and distribution of water has poised many difficulties. The consequences of this are poor efficiency in water use, inequity in distribution, disputes, high cost, and substantial under-utilization of the potential created. On the other hand, institutional initiatives that aim to improve water management and distribution are seen in some areas/locations, and show a process of arriving at better institutional arrangements. Water institutions are crucial for eastern India and though there are a few examples of spontaneous bottom-up initiatives, much of this development is driven by external interventions including laws, policies, and government programs. Even though under the government interventions, the guidelines and policies are usually uniform and top-down, the local uptake and adoption show substantial variation and divergence and this deserves study. The research is based on review of the literature as well as on six in-depth case studies, and also responses of 510 households involved with 51 participatory water institutions in the setting of the eastern Indo-Gangetic plains states of Assam and Bihar. The paper first takes a brief look at the literature on the foundations and experiences of participatory irrigation management (PIM), and then examines through the case studies and data, the development and variation in the PIM water institution in the given setting. It examines features such as laws, membership, structure, inclusion, participation/involvement and devolution. It finds that inclusion of various groups of people in the institutions is quite good except for women and youth. However, actual involvement of different people varies substantially. The issue of devolution/decentralization versus centralization in decision-making is very important to PIM, and varies across the structure and functions. The association of involvement and devolution to performance indicates that the active involvement of some functionaries and groups is very important, and that devolution in several decisions can considerably enhance performance. The observations provide many useful insights for policy and institutional design which can help improve water resource management in the eastern Indo-Gangetic plains.

Sustainable Intensification of Rice-Based Systems with Potato in Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains

In many parts of Asia food security and poverty remain issues even though arable land is available to produce nutritious food. Sustainable intensification of agricultural systems has been proposed to produce more outputs on same land area whilst minimizing environmental degradation. Tradeoffs, however, are inevitable and evidence thereof is scant. In this study, we analyze effects of sustainable intensification of rice-based systems with potato and focus on the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains of India and Bangladesh. A literature review, expert consultation, and an economic surplus exercise are used to address our objective. We find that sustainable intensification has a huge potential and positive welfare effects. Socio-economic tradeoffs, especially for labour, need to be considered and balanced out. Increasing input efficiency for instance by improving farming practices may reduce negative environmental effects.

Water and nutrients distribution in sweet corn field under gravity drip irrigation and nitrogen management in eastern indo-gangetic plains

A field experiment was carried out during the winter season of 2015-16 to study the effects of four levels of irrigation (gravity drip at 1.0, 0.8 and 0.6 of crop evapotranspiration and surface irrigation) and four levels of nitrogen management (100% inorganic N, 75% inorganic N + 25% inorganic N as vermicompost, 75% inorganic N + 25% inorganic N as FYM and 75% inorganic N + 25% inorganic N as mustard oilcake) on the temporal distribution of water and macronutrients in sweet corn field grown in sandy loam soil. The results of the study showed that amounts of soil water consistently decreased with increase in soil depth; the more so in higher irrigation level than in lower irrigation level and that too under integrated nitrogen management schedule than in chemical nitrogen fertilization only. Higher soil moisture storage was observed in rooting zone depth under drip irrigation scheduling at 1.0 ETc followed by 0.8 ETc as compared with surface irrigation. Higher availability of N, P and K contents in soils at harvest was observed in deficit irrigation regimes than in higher irrigation regimes and that too with integrated N supply than with chemical N fertilization only. Maximum NPK uptake by plant was noticed with surface irrigation and drip irrigation at 1.0 ETc each provided with 75% N as fertilizer and 25% N as vermicompost. The deficit irrigation scheduling with different N management resulted in moderate to low uptake of macronutrients from soil by corn plant.

Enhancing Performance of Participatory Water Institutions in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains: What Can We Learn from New Institutional Economics and Governance Theories?

The paper examines the performance of participatory water institutions in India’s Eastern Indo-Gangetic plains region using new institutional economics and management governance fundamentals. Water institutions are of great importance for water resource management in India’s Eastern Indo-Gangetic plains since the region has relatively abundant water but lags behind significantly in economic development and growth with a high incidence of poverty. Engineering solutions to water management have been implemented but have not given good results principally because of weak institutional development and design in the region. Effective and efficient participatory water institutions are urgently needed. The research uses concepts from new institutional economics and management governance theory to build a conceptual framework for explaining the performance of participatory water institutions. The framework identifies eight institutional rationalities: technical, environmental, economic, social, political organizational, financial and government; as well as five institutional features: clear objectives, good interaction, adaptiveness, right scale, and compliance, as linked to performance. Based on this, a survey instrument was developed and a survey conducted obtaining responses from more than 500 households across 51 such institutions in the eastern Indo-Gangetic plains states of Assam and Bihar. The data were analyzed through statistical and econometric techniques including Ordered-Probit. The results support the relevance of the concepts in explaining performance of water institutions, and a number of drivers of performance were identified through Ordered-Probit, particularly, four rationalities—technical, economic, social and organizational, (with coefficients (0.4622, 0.3803, 0.4303, 0.2457) and three institutional features—good interaction, adaptiveness and appropriate scale (with coefficients 0.4242, 0.2703, 0.6756) (based on a 5-point Likert scale), as playing a positive and significant role in enhancing performance. The results provide a number of useful insights which can help guide interventions and policy towards better design and development of the water institutions, and help improve water resource management and livelihoods in the region.

Comparative assessment of improved management practices for paddy yield in Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains

Rice is grown around the globe in 113 countries spread over 153 million hectares with estimated total production of 589 million tonnes. Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains (EIGP) of India contributes major portion in food grain production most particularly in rice but with a low productivity as compared to Western Indo-Gangetic Plains (WIGP) of India. Therefore, field experiment on technological interventions that are fundamental to productivity growth of rice were successfully implemented through farmers’ field trials by 10 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) across different ecologies in Bihar (8 KVKs), Eastern UP (2 KVKs) during 2016–18. It was found that paddy yield remained same in a range of 5.1 to 5.2 for Long Duration Rice Varieties (LDRVs) and in a range of 5.0 to 5.1 tonnes/ha for Medium Duration Rice Varieties (MDRVs) or hybrids. The grain yield of wheat saw a significant advantage with rice equivalent wheat yields (3.2 tonnes/ha) under CTW and 3.8 tonnes/ha under ZTW. Work done by KVKs (Ara, Buxar and Rohtas) show that creation of rice nursery enterprise (RNEs) can be an alternate way to transplant rice on time. The RNEs created by three KVKs in Bihar, raised nursery on 27.86 acres which was transplanted on 983 acres. When DSR was practiced after pre-sowing irrigation and good field preparation, the paddy yields ranged from 6.2 to 6.4 tonnes/ha in the cluster of 5 KVKs from Agro-Climatic Zone III (Southern East and West), 5.4 to 5.8 tonnes/ha in the cluster of 3 KVKs fromAgro-Climatic Zones I(Northern West) and 5.1 to 5.2 in the eastern UP cluster of 2 KVKs.

Spatio-temporal variability of CO over the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) and in parts of South-East Asia: a MERRA-2-based study

The present study revolves around the distribution of surface CO concentrations around the industrial belts of the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) and in parts of Southeast Asia over a period of 10 years from January 2007 to December 2016. MERRA-2 reanalysis fields are analysed to study the long-term spatial and seasonal behaviour of CO. The focus is on three CO hotspot areas in this region, denoted by A, B and C, which are further subdivided into eight smaller divisions based on topographical and regional characteristics as discussed in details in “Study Region & Meteorology” section. The monthly average distribution of CO in all the eight zones ranges from 750 (C1) to 3781(A2) ppbv. Very high values are consistently observed in the Indo-Gangetic Plains as compared with other regions during the entire period of study. Seasonal variation of surface CO concentration indicates high values in the post-monsoon or winter season. Analysis of spatio-temporal variation alongside emission, chemical production and loss reveals that presence of surface CO is predominantly due to combustion of fossil fuels and burning of organic matters. Fire hotspot data from FIRMS also support these results. Statistical analysis performed using the non-linear regression model further elucidates the sources of CO in the hotspot areas. The coefficient of determination (R2) values between surface CO concentration (response variable) and emission, chemical production and loss (the independent process variables) for all the zones show interesting results. MERRA-2 does not consider any kind of convective transport as influx and outflux of the hypothetical control volume (box) and as such slightly overestimates the net CO concentration as compared with the ground-based measurements under steady-state scenarios.

Social inclusion increases with time for zero-tillage wheat in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains.

Sustainable intensification (SI) approaches to agricultural development are urgently needed to meet the growing demand for crop staples while protecting ecosystem services and environmental quality. However, SI initiatives have been criticized for neglecting social welfare outcomes. A recent review found that better-off farmers benefitted disproportionately from SI and highlighted the dearth of studies assessing the equity of outcomes. In this study, we explore the social inclusiveness of zero-tillage (ZT) wheat adoption in Bihar, India. ZT is a proven SI technology for enhancing wheat productivity while boosting profitability and reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural machinery in the densely populated Indo-Gangetic Plains. With an average landholding size of 0.39 ha, most farmers in Bihar depend on custom-hiring services to access the technology. While service provision models should foster inclusive growth by reducing financial barriers to technology adoption, early evidence suggested that smallholders remained at a disadvantage. Building on this previous research, we use a panel dataset from 961 wheat-growing households that spans a six-year period to analyze ZT adoption dynamics over time while accounting for the role of social networks and access to service provision. Using a heckprobit approach to correct for non-exposure bias, we compare determinants of ZT awareness and use in 2012 and 2015. We apply a multinomial logit model to identify determinants of early adoption, recent adoption, non-adoption, and dis-adoption. Furthermore, we explore the quality of ZT services as an additional dimension of socially-inclusive technology access. We find that the strong initial scale bias in ZT use declined substantially as awareness of the technology increased and the service economy expanded. Land fragmentation replaced total landholding size as a significant adoption determinant, which also affected the quality of ZT services received. Hence, farmers with small but contiguous landholdings appear to have gained a significant degree of access over time. We conclude that early-stage assessments of SI may be misleading, and that private sector-based service provision can contribute to socially inclusive development outcomes as markets mature.