Aquila Heliaca Research Articles

Орел-могильник в Республике Татарстан — продолжение исследований

Орел-могильник в Республике Татарстан — продолжение исследований

Natal Dispersal of Eastern Imperial Eagles: Preliminary Results For the Central European Population

The Central European Population of the Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) is located on its most western global distribution edge. After a strong decline in the last two centuries, the population recovered in the past decades not least due to extensive protection measurements. Conservation and scientific programs on international and national level were implemented in several countries, especially in Hungary, Slovakia, Austria, Czech Republic, and Serbia. In frame of these activities imperial eagle were tagged by satellite transmitter since 2003 in several projects by different organisations of the region. In the current presentation we show preliminary results of an analysis of the natal dispersal movements of the immature birds of this residential population of Eastern Imperial Eagles. Therefore, more than 14 million data points of more than 130 individuals were available and analysed. We defined start of natal dispersal as the point when the young birds left their natal territory (5 km from natal nest) for at least 10 consecutive days. Because of high individual variability, we decided to classify the end of dispersal manually as the time the bird became territorial for the first time. We analysed movement pattern for the whole period of natal dispersal as well as for different life stages/age classes. Therefore we distinguished between breeding (1.2–30.9) and non-breeding season (1.10–30.2) for each year of life of the birds. It turns out that daily travel ranges are higher during the breeding season than outside the breeding season and that activity decreases over the years until the birds start establishing a territory. Furthermore, we estimate utilization distribution (UD) by calculating a dynamic Brownian Bridge Movement Model (dBBMM). Therefor in a first step, a dBBMM was calculated for each single individual. Those individual UDs were summarised up by using days of tracking as weight. The resulting UD gives an overview of distribution and space use of immature Eastern Imperial Eagles. It shows that while wide explorative flights of single birds occur, the majority of the birds stays mainly in Central Europe within the range of the breeding distribution of the population. Additional, there is a connection to the western parts of Greece and the island of Crete. The results help to enhance knowledge about habitat use and identify hotspots for further conservation efforts.

Результаты мониторинга гнездовых популяций солнечного орла в Дагестане (Россия) в 2022–2023 гг.

Результаты мониторинга гнездовых популяций солнечного орла в Дагестане (Россия) в 2022–2023 гг.

Human activities can hinder the breeding of a top avian predator: preliminary results

The Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca, EIE) is a large-sized, globally threatened species with a wide distribution. The species is extremely vulnerable and sensitive to human disturbance and activities in the vicinity of its nests. We analyzed the effect of human disturbance on two territories of Eastern Imperial Eagles from Bulgaria in 2008–2009. We recorded 375 cases of different types of human activity in the vicinity of the two surveyed nests – 60 cases for nest A and 315 for nest B. The most common activity around the studied nests was the passing of light motor vehicles (n=100 cases). Our results highlight that the probability of EIE’s reaction is dependent on the type of activity, distance from the nest and the duration of the activity. However, eagles’ reaction is independent from the number of intruders. We found that with the decrease of the distance to the nest, the reaction progresses and is more acute. We found statistical differences between the distance belts and the majority of alert and flight reactions that were recorded at distances up to 300 m from the nests. We reported that humans walking around nests (mainly hunters, fishermen, tourists, people illegally extracting sand in the close vicinity of the nests) result in a large number of reactions of flight off by the eagles, thus leaving the nest unattended. More research on a large scale on this topic is needed, including more accurate measures to address human disturbance in EIE territories. The findings will be applied to ensure higher breeding rates and species conservation.

Хищные птицы и ветроэнергетика в Казахстане: какие перспективы для орлов?

Хищные птицы и ветроэнергетика в Казахстане: какие перспективы для орлов?

Популяционно-генетическая структура степного орла: есть ли надежда на сохранение вида?

For centuries, Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) had been the most numerous Palearctic Aquila species, but nowadays it has been decreasing in numbers progressively, so in 2015 the IUCN changed the species status to “endangered”. The decrease is evidently related to Steppe Eagles’ electrocution at nesting areas and during migration, poisoning by veterinarian drugs when feeding on agricultural animal carcasses at wintering grounds, steppe fires and total habitat loss combined with loss of prey like susliks. To the contrary, the sister Aquila species, the Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca), which exhibits similar biological traits and lives simpatrically to the Steppe Eagle at some parts of areas, shows local increase in numbers and even substitutes the decreasing Steppe Eagle in steppe biomes. In the 1960s, many Palearctic birds of prey came through population decline due to so-called “DDT crisis” – massive pesticide poisoning. To restore the species numbers, specific conservation actions were initiated in Europe to support population numbers and genetic diversity of raptors. Regarding the Steppe Eagle with its nesting area located mostly at Kazakhstan, Russian, Mongolian and Chinese territories, the implications of DDT and electrocution impacts on the population numbers stayed poorly investigated. Meanwhile, loss of genetic stability can be a reason for lasting population decline. Genetic threats like population fragmentation, genetic erosion, and inbreeding depression are believed more prolonged in comparison to anthropogenic impacts and more rarely come under increasing scrutiny of conservation practitioners. However, if exist, they can lead to species extinction regardless of removal of all other threats. The Steppe Eagle population structure stays poorly investigated. In 2018, during the 1st Steppe Eagle conservation international workshop, this problem was highlighted with recommendations for filling this gap. Our presented study was conducted following this recommendation and focused on genetic structure, fragmentation, and effective number comparison of the Steppe Eagle population at the individual samples) and sympatric populations of the Imperial Eagle (over 100 samples). For conservation criteria estimation, we used widespread genetic markers like nuclear microsatellites (9 loci) and mitochondrial control region (D-loop). Also we performed molecular individual tagging and parentage analysis to study the population structure using samples from the numerous Western Kazakhstan population. We also used GIS methods to study geographic fragmentation of populations. The genetic analysis showed that the Steppe Eagle population structure is highly similar to that of the Imperial Eagle but with less genetic diversity and has traces of repeated survival of “population bottlenecks” with huge decline in the number and genetic diversity. Fragmentation analysis showed no genetic isolation of geographically fragmented nesting groups despite the presumed natal phylopatry in accordance with our Steppe Eagle parentage data. Preliminary estimation of the Steppe Eagle population effective numbers by linkage disequilibrium method showed rather high values inspite of the lasting population decline. The molecular coancestry estimation showed more serious decline during the latest bottleneck which was also far below the ancestral Imperial Eagle population at the studied areas. The inbreeding rate for the Steppe Eagle population at the most part of the species areas turned out to outnumber one for the local population of the Imperial Eagle. Our data showed no immediate genetic threats for the Steppe Eagle population restoration and also demonstrated traces of multiple bottlenecks in the species evolution. Still the genetic structure of the species population keeps some traits of modern decline and should be monitored permanently according to the species numbers. Unique population structure patterns of the Steppe Eagle between other Aquilinae species and their conservation aspects are directions for future Aquila nipalensis genetic research.

К вопросу о миграциях орла-могильника и степного орла в Туркменистане

A dedicated analysis of spring and fall migration of the Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) and Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) in Turkmenistan has never been conducted before. Both species have been considered migratory, although in the last decade some individuals began to overwinter. Wide portions of their flyways pass over Turkmenistan. Both species are more often found and concentrated in the southern half of the country and areas containing an abundance of Great Gerbil (Rhombomys opimus) and Libyan Jird (Meriones erythrourus), especially in population outbreak years. The migrating Imperial Eagle may be encountered almost everywhere, preferring areas in various open habitats in the flat parts of the country. It is difficult to estimate the total number of migrating Imperial Eagles, as well as Steppe Eagles, because it is rarely possible to record them over large areas during migration. We have put together the few known facts: a migrating flock of 26 individuals was recorded on April 28, 1939, near the Karabogazgol Strait (Isakov, Vorobyev, 1940); after detailed observations in 1949–1958 the Imperial Eagle was recorded twice in Badkhyz (Sukhinin, 1971), and only once in 1984–1997 (Bukreev, 1997); 37 Imperial Eagles have been observed in a flyway on October 20, 1976, in the delta of the Murghab River (in the Karakum lowlands), 36 km north of the village of Chashgyn. In the South-Eastern shore of the Caspian Sea there were 2 sightings over the period of 1977–1991: in October 1977 (3 individuals near Maloye Delili Lake) and March 1979 (2 individuals near Cheloyuk settlement) (A.A. Karavaev, unpublished data); In Central Kopetdagh in 1990–2010 this eagle was recorded only 7 times, with 1–2 birds observed each time, for a total of 27 birds (Efimenko, 2010), including once a flock of 9 individuals (Efimenko N.N., unpublished data); In the Western Kopetdagh in 2009–2018 it was also recorded 7 times, usually 1–2 individuals, with one observation of 6 individuals at one time (March 6, 2015) (Khodjamuradov, Rustamov, 2010; 2019). Although Steppe Eagles can be found throughout Turkmenistan, they migrate mostly over the western and southeastern parts of the country. The first flyway is predominantly over the Western Kopetdag and then through Southern Ustyurt (territories surrounding Karabogasgol bay and Sarakamysh lake), while the other goes through the broader Badkhyz corridor further along the edge of the Southeastern Karakum and Karabil to the southern half of the Sundukly Desert (Tallimerjen massif). Individual migrant streams can be traced along the foothills of the Bolshoi Balkhan and Maliy Balkhan, Kopetdag and/or across the Karakums. At the same time, birds can be seen everywhere in small groups and even singly (as if in isolation, but parallel to the main stream), crossing the flat portion of Turkmenistan in a broad front. Compared to the Imperial eagle, there are considerably more recorded sightings of Steppe Eagles (detailed analysis is given in the report).

Степной орёл в Алтае-Саянском регионе – результаты исследований 2019–2023 годов

Степной орёл в Алтае-Саянском регионе – результаты исследований 2019–2023 годов

Орёл-могильник на юго-востоке Казахстана в 2022–2023 годах: распространение, численность, угрозы

Орёл-могильник на юго-востоке Казахстана в 2022–2023 годах: распространение, численность, угрозы

Status of the Eastern Imperial Eagle in Hungary Between 2019 and 2023

The Hungarian population of the Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) is closely monitored by MME BirdLife Hungary and the ranger service of the Hungarian national park directorates since 1980. The population is slowly, but continuously increasing during the last four decades and the average population growth rate is 11% and the number of estimated nesting population has increased from 230–240 pairs (2018) to 400–450 (2023). The distribution area is also still expanding to the south and the species colonised new areas especially in Bács-Kiskun, Csongrád and Győr-Moson-Sopron counties, but even spread to Serbia and Romania. The breeding density also increased in the core areas of the breeding range especially in Heves, Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok and Békés counties, which hold the most important stronghold of the species in the Pannonian basin. Besides, the average breeding success also increased to 1.54 fledgling/breeding pair and 1.91 fledgling/successful pair by 2022. The prevalence of raptor poisoning incidents decreased and were kept at a relatively low level between 2014–2022 thanks to specific and complex conservation measures with the help of the EU’s LIFE Nature programme (HELICON and PannonEagle LIFE projects). Due to the significant increase of the population and the limited capacity of the working group, the national monitoring protocol has been changed in 2023. The key parameters of the national population (i.e. no. of nesting pairs, no. of chicks) is still monitored by the ranger service of the Hungarian national park directorates. On the other hand, the complex monitoring program of MME BirdLife Hungary, which is gathering detailed data on breeding performance (including ringing and drone surveillance, diet and genetic analyses) is focusing only on selected sample areas, which recently covers 50% of the population (ca. 200 pairs).

О натальной филопатрии у солнечных орлов из Поволжской популяции

Population structure across the range of the Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) remains one of the controversial issues that can be resolved by data on the distribution of juveniles from different points in the range. However, the long period of puberty, the difficulty of establishing a new breeding territory in conditions of limited food resources and nesting habitats, the high mortality of juveniles and the short lifespan of tracking devices make this task very difficult. In this respect, any reliable data on the natal philopatry of the Imperial Eagle is of great interest. We have been tagging eagles in the Ulyanovsk Region since 2017. During this time, 30 juvenile Imperial Eagles were fitted with Aquila GPS/GSM trackers. During subsequent tracking of the tagged individuals, two nesting attempts were recorded. The first nesting attempt was observed with the female eagle Avralka, which was tagged as a nestling in 2017 in the Melekessky district. In the spring of 2021, Avralka stayed near the renovated nest until early May, but did not breed that season and the connection with the bird was lost after that. Avralka's nest was also located in the Melekessky district, only 12 km from her parents' nest. This breeding territory was previously unknown to us. In 2023, the male eagle Sura, tagged as a nestling in 2018 in the steppe valley of the middle reaches of the Sura River in the Karsunsky district, began nesting. On 25 May 2023 we visited its permanent site this spring and found an occupied nest with a clutch of one egg. When we visited the nest again on 14 June, we did not find a hatchling, apparently it had died in the early stages of development due to malnutrition. Sura's nesting site is located in the Dubensky district of the Republic of Mordovia, 23 km from the nesting site of its parents. Thus, in both cases, adult birds attempted to nest in the area where they were born, even though juveniles migrate quite widely during their first few years of life. This fact, despite the small sample size, suggests a rather strong natal philopatry, at least for some individuals of the Imperial Eagle, both males and females. The research was conducted as part of the “Study and Conservation of the Eastern Imperial Eagle” project carried out by the Non-Governmental Nature Conservation Centre “KAVKAZ” (NABU-Kavkaz) in cooperation with the Russian Bird Conservation Union (RBCU) and the German Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU), with support from the NABU International Foundation and the VGP Foundation.

Status of Imperial Eagle in Iran

Distribution and abundance of the Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) in Iran: a scarce breeding bird in Caspian forests of central and eastern Alborz, and in the east of northern Khorasan. A widespread winter visitor in rather small numbers to Caspian lowlands and large wetlands in central Iran south to Khuzestan, the Persian Gulf coast, and southern Baluchestan. Also seen as a passage migrant in Iranian Azerbaijan. Conservation status: Globally has been listed as vulnerable (VU) in IUCN Red List and listed in CITES Appendix I. Also concerned as endangered species in Iran and is of conservation value.

Миграция хищных птиц через Западный Кавказ в осенний период

Миграция хищных птиц через Западный Кавказ в осенний период

Орёл-могильник в песках Мойынкум, Казахстан

The Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) is a rare breeding species of Kazakhstan. Previously, it was assumed that one of the large nesting groups of this species, and the most southeastern one in the range, is concentrated in the Moyinqum Sands and adjacent semi-desert areas in the south of Kazakhstan. Based on the results of research in 2022–2023, we confirmed the presence of a large breeding group of the Imperial Eagle in Moyinqum (38 occupied nesting sites were identified) and modeled its distribution in Google Earth Engine using the image classification method – Random Forest (probability + regression). The area of habitats suitable for nesting for the Imperial Eagle in Moyinqum was determined to be 4971.09 km2, and the area of habitats is 55073.86 km2. The number of Imperial Eagle in the territory under consideration is estimated at 79–275, with an average of 150 pairs. Despite the prolonged depression in the number of rodents, the number of eagles remains stable. The size of the broods before departure varied from 1 to 3 nestlings, averaging (n=5) 2±0.71 nestlings per successful nest and (n=9) 1.11±1.17 nestlings per active nest, after fledged – from 1 to 2 fledglings, averaging (n=4) 1.75±0.5 fledglings per successful nest and (n=9) 0.78±0.97 fledglings per active nest. The overall breeding success for all studied nests was 44.44%, and the breeding efficiency was 58.33%. The main anthropogenic threats to the breeding group of the Imperial Eagle in Moyinqum are the conservation of wells, leading to the liquidation of farms and cessation of grazing, and uranium mining.

Орлы в государственном национальном природном парке «Бурабай»

From August 20 to September 17, 2022 and in the spring of 2023, the authors conducted ornithological research in the State National Natural Park “Burabay”. In the course of the research, information was obtained on encounters with eagles in the territory of the park. Imperial Eagles (Aquila heliaca) were observed throughout the area on a daily basis. A total of 44 observations were recorded during the research period, some of which were definitely migrants rather than local breeding birds. Only four out of 44 individuals observed were this year's birds. To the northeast of Big Chebachee Lake on 14/09/2022, adult birds were feeding a nestling, indicating the presence of a breeding territory of eagles here. In April 2023, a nest with two eggs was found. A large eagle nest, presumably of the Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), was found in the forest north of Zhukey Lake in the 40th district on September 6, 2022. The nest was located on an old pine tree and was approximately 1.5 m in diameter. Bone remains of prey and feathers of various birds of prey (e.g. Buzzards Buteo buteo) were found under the nest. Shortly afterwards, an eagle, identified by us as this year's Golden Eagle, wasseen in the vicinity of the nest, and on 13/09/2022 an adult bird was observed between the lakes Maloye Chebacheeand Bolshoye Chebachee, north of Lake Maibalyk. An adult Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila [Clanga] clanga) was observed near the Kairaktin Forest District on 26/08/2022. The bird was carrying food in its beak to a juvenile bird calling from the forest (Becker/ebird.org; Wassink, 2023). This is the first case of breeding of the Greater Spotted Eagle in the State National Natural Park «Burabay». Another juvenile bird, uncertainly identified as the Great Spotted Eagle, was seen a few hours later about 12 km south of the previous encounter site. The Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) was observed twice, once on 25/08/2022 in Saule aul and once on 05/09/2022 over Ulkensor Lake. Steppe eagles are likely to be migrants or nomads within the Park after the breeding season, but do not breed in the Park. The Booted Eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus) was observed four times, on August 22 and 23 in the territory of Barmashinskoye Forestry, and on September 8 and 15, 2022 in the vicinity of Borovskoye Forestry, with birds of both light and dark morphs (Becker/ebird.org). In addition, on 21/07/2021, the Booted Eagle was recorded by a trap camera set up in the forest between Burabay and Sarybulak (Wassink, 2023). The nearest known breeding territory is located approximately 430 km to the southeast in Bayanaul National Park (Reznichenko, 2012; 2020). Proposed measures for the conservation of the considered bird species on the territory of the State National Natural Park «Burabay»: – introduce a ban on any logging within a radius of 1.5 km from eagle breeding territories; – sanitation cutting, with mandatory reforestation of native tree species, only after nestlings have learned to fly; – limit the presence of livestock and people within 500 m of eagle nests during the breeding season; – during the incubation period and before fledglings take wing, inspectors should conduct daily rounds of the breeding areas (within 500 meters of the nests) to prevent possible violations by park visitors; – restrict watering of livestock on the banks of water bodies near eagles' nests.

Сезонные аспекты питания Поволжской популяции солнечных орлов в гнездовой период

Сезонные аспекты питания Поволжской популяции солнечных орлов в гнездовой период

Status, Breeding Ecology and Conservation of the Imperial Eagle in Austria

The Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca, IE) reaches the western limit of its global breeding in range in Austria. As a result of targeted conservation measures in the Pannonian region, namely Hungary and Slovakia, the species repopulated Austria in 1999, nearly 190 years after its extirpation. Since then, a strong population increase took place and was monitored closely through different species conservation programmes of BirdLife Austria. Apart from the population monitoring, the programmes comprised measures to prevent illegal persecution and the disturbance of breeding territories, the satellite tagging of young IEs and the collection of all mortality data available. By 2023, the Austrian breeding population reached 42 territorial pairs. During the past 25 years, the species, which is classified as “Endangered” on the national Red List, has pushed its continuous breeding range a further 85 km to the west. In the years 2018–2020, a pair occurred even in the floodplain forest of the Danube near Linz but vanished afterwards. The province of Lower Austria, where the species has become established as late as 2008, hosts the majority of the national population today. IEs use different habitat types as nest sites in Austria: the floodplain forests of medium and big rivers (where the recolonization started in the late 1990s) are quite densely populated; apart from that, breeding occurs in open agricultural landscapes and in big forest in dry, hilly terrain of the “Weinviertel” region. Most nests are built on only a few tree species: Populus sp., Quercus sp. and Pinus sp.; other species (Robinia pseudoacacia, Salix sp.) are used only occasionally. Regarding the number of fledged young per pair and the failure rate of nesting attempts, no clear trend could be established but weather patterns in single years seem to affect the number. Especially when combined with human disturbance (agriculture, forestry, hunting, recreation), cold, wet conditions can lead to nest failure. Interestingly, this is reflected in the proportion of abandoned nests when clustered per habitat type. Nests in open, agricultural areas, where disturbance seems to be more frequent, have a lower success rate than those in floodplain or hill forest. According to observations and the collection of prey remains below nest sites, the most important prey species by far is Lepus europaeus. Where Spermophilus citellus and Cricetus cricetus still occur in relevant densities, they are hunted frequently. Birds, such as Phasianidae, Columbidae, Corvidae, or Alaudidae, also comprise a significant proportion of the IE’s diet. Especially in winter, but also during the breeding season, the species uses carrion, particularly adult hares. The satellite tagging activities revealed that illegal persecution is the most important mortality reason for young IE born in Austria. To tackle this problem, activities to fight illegal persecution were expanded and intensified in the frame of the PannonEagle LIFE (LIFE15/NAT/HU/000902) project together with the neighbouring countries. Other relevant mortality reasons are collisions with trains and train infrastructure and collisions with wind power plants. Especially the latter must be closely monitored regarding the necessary expansion of wind farms in the future. As side notes, the monitoring produced interesting findings about the breeding biology of the species e.g., the takeover of an active nest of Buteo buteo and subsequent hatching and adoption of the chick.

Electrocution Mortality of Imperial Eagle on Medium Voltage Power Lines in Slovakia

Medium-voltage power lines are one of the most important mortality factors of raptors in Slovakia. Among the frequent victims of electrocution are also rare species, such as the Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca). Many of the breeding pairs have gradually relocated from the foothills to nearby agrocenoses, with a higher risk of possible electrocution, as they often use the poles for resting. In Slovakia, the problem of electrocution has been the focus for mitigation measures since 1991. Especially the LIFE Energy project (implemented in 2014–2019) brought new insight into this topic, as systematic monitoring of almost 61,000 medium voltage poles was carried out in 2014–2016. Electrocution was defined as the main mortality factor of cadavers found. Almost 80% (2,992 individuals, 35 species) of all identified carcasses (4,353 individuals, 84 species) died as a result of electrocution. Branch and anchor supports and poles with jumpers above the insulators were the most dangerous configuration, accounting for 34.72% of total recorded electrocution fatalities (0.22 carcasses per pole). Systematic monitoring of the Imperial Eagle population has been carried out since 1977, when the abundance of the breeding population was 2–10 breeding pairs. After 2000, the settlement of the lowlands and the associated gradual increase in the breeding population were recorded, facilitated by targeted conservation measures. In 2022, the population reached 90 breeding pairs with 108 fledged nestlings in Slovakia. For the period 1993–2022, a total of 28 cases of Imperial Eagle mortalities were recorded in Slovakia. More extensive monitoring was carried out within the LIFE Energy project (2014–2019) when 16 victims were found, for the other years these are random cases. Therefore, the presented numbers do not reflect the actual mortality rate of the Imperial Eagle on 22 kV lines in Slovakia. The mortalities of individuals were mainly located below the most frequent types of the support poles with pin-type insulators. A serious problem was often observed especially for juveniles and inexperienced individuals during their first flights, landings and take-offs. Lowest mortality risk was identified for measures that allow birds to perch safely on the crossarm in comparison to antiperching elements. Therefore, the grid operators started to prefer the use of supports with safe crossarm configurations (for newly constructed lines) or insulating materials and elements that reflect these findings. The 22 kV medium voltage lines consist of thousands of supporting poles. It is therefore important to set the priority areas (breeding territories, feeding areas, etc.) where the main efforts should be focused primarily. This approach is fully implemented within the cooperation between Raptor Protection of Slovakia and DSOs in Slovakia, and also under project LIFE Danube Free Sky, under which 800 most dangerous poles will be safe for birds. Project is supported by the European Commission under the LIFE programme and the Ministry of the Environment of the Slovak Republic. Satellite transmitters installed on juveniles also help in the identification of priority poles and also bring new insights into the mortality rate (one from six tagged juveniles in 2022 died as a result of electrocution). Prevention of electrocution is especially important in the case of imperial eagle, as the loss of even one individual can have a negative impact on the viability of the local population. Therefore, many identified risky poles are insulated by DSOs on an ad hoc basis. In Slovakia, the protection of wild bird species in relation to their mortality on power lines is required by the national legislation. Only approved protective elements and crossarm designs that have undergone a risk assessment process can be applied. An important aspect of raptor conservation is the communication, mutual trust, and sharing of up-to-date knowledge between all relevant stakeholders.

Биоценотические связи сайгаков с крупными хищными птицами

Conservation of biodiversity has recently become the most urgent task due to global anthropogenic transformation of the environment. Therefore, more and more attention is being paid to the role of species in biogeocenosis, their biocoenotic relationships, and the assessment of ongoing changes. Due to the unprecedented growth of the Ural Saiga (Saiga tatarica) population, the study of ecology, behavior, and biocenotic relationships as factors affecting the structure of the ecosystem and, in particular, large birds of prey has become increasingly important. The saiga population in West Kazakhstan Region in 2023 is estimated at 1.13 million individuals, which is highly concentrated in Zhanibek (8,200 km2), Bokeyordinsky (19,214 km2), and Kaztalovsky (18,600 km2) districts of the region. And here we should pay attention to the fact that with anthropogenic changes in the habitat (construction of roads, canals, gas and oil pipelines, etc.), macroevolutionary changes in saiga behavior have begun to occur – saigas are no longer the nomadic species they were 100 years ago, they no longer nomade over great distances, and are becoming more sedentary. Our observations show that saigas do not travel more than 100 km and stay mainly around sors (dried up salt lakes). The next fact is that from late November to early December, saigas start their rut. As a result of extreme exhaustion during the rut, up to 96% of males die. The huge biomass accumulates in a relatively small area. This cannot cause the population of predators and scavengers to grow. The growth of predatory mammals is limited by the availability of accessible drinking water, so we did not observe an increase in the population of wolves, but the number of jackals and steppe cats increased. The growth of jackals is possible not only due to the availability of food in the autumnwinter period, but also due to increased hunting pressure in neighboring areas of the Russian Federation. The growth of the steppe cat (which is most abundant in the Bokeyordinsky district) may be due to the growth of saigas, as it has been reported that saiga remains have been found in the cat's stomach. The above-mentioned districts of West Kazakhstan Region have the highest density of large birds of prey. There are both direct and indirect biocoenotic links between saigas and large birds of prey – Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis), Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca), White-Tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus), and Eurasian Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus). Studies, both our own and those of the Association for the Conservation of Biodiversity of Kazakhstan (ACBK), show a high density of the breeding of Steppe Eagles in West Kazakhstan Region (WKR) in areas where saigas congregate, especially in the Kaztalovsky District, while in other areas of the region their numbers are very low. Its direct and indirect biocenotic relationship with saigas can be traced here: – Direct. All the nests we examined contained saiga remains. We have never seen Steppe Eagles hunting saigas, most likely picking up fallen or sick individuals, as well as the afterbirths of saiga calves. We saw a Steppe Eagle eating a saiga (most likely it was hit by a car, as its ribs were broken), the peritoneum was opened, internal organs were lying separately, the eagle did not eat them. It mostly pecked meat from the thighs of the hind legs. The carcass was fresh, blood had not coagulated yet. In the area of Araltobe Sor on 20/08/2020 we observed a large pre-migration concentration of the Steppe Eagle of about 300 individuals. – Indirect. In areas where saigas graze there is a high number of the Little Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus pygmaeus), the main food object of the Steppe Eagle. By regulating the height of grass stands, favorable conditions for the Little Ground Squirrel are created. In other areas of the region, the Little Ground Squirrel has become rare. The White-Tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) is abundant during winter migration in areas where saigas congregate: On November 15, 2021, we counted 43 individuals following a herd of saigas on the 100 km Kaztalovka – Khan Ordasy road route. In recent years, we have recorded annual visitations of the Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus) in the region. We attribute this to the growth of the saiga population. In 2019, we recorded an encounter of the Eurasian Griffon Vulture in the vicinity of Saihin settlement, which is the first record for the last 50 years. Analyzing all of the above, we can conclude that the growth of saiga population positively affects the dynamics of population growth of large birds of prey in the West Kazakhstan Region.

О популяции беркута в восточной части Киргизского хребта, Северный Тянь-Шань, Кыргызстан

The material for this paper is based on occasional observations of the Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) over a 30-year period and on breeding data collected from March 21 to April 14, and from May 21 to June 14, 2019, in the foothills and middle mountains of the northern macro slope of the Kyrgyz Range, from the Boom Valley in the east to the Kara-Balta area in the west. This territory is stretching on 170 km. The main goal of the fieldwork was to search for Saker Falcon’s (Falco cherrug) nests, thus information about the Golden Eagle’s nests was collected mostly occasionally. Nevertheless, these data objectively reflect the current state of the population. During the survey period, six active nests of the Golden Eagle were discovered. One nest was located on a rock ledge, two nests were built within niches in conglomerate cliffs, and three nests were found on clay cliffs. In the latter case, the nests were built on the basis of shrubs growing on the cliffs. Usually, the contents of the nests were not observed. Only in one nest an egg was seen on March 26, and on May 23 the nest contained a fledgling with growing flight feathers. In total, during the field trip, 11 adult and two juvenile Golden Eagles were encountered, excluding territorial birds observed near the nests. The Golden Eagle is present in the Kyrgyz Range all year round. It appears that a pair consistently maintains its nesting territory, driving all other large eagles away. For instance, on December 3, 2018, in the foothills of the Kyrgyz Range, we observed two Golden Eagles relentlessly chase and attack an Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca). Breeding displays were observed near the Orto-Tokoy Reservoir on January 22, 2010. Young eagles spend the winter with their parents, who continue to feed them occasionally. In various locations within the Tien Shan range, groups of three birds, including one juvenile, are encountered throughout the winter. Presumably, during the incubation period, parents drive young birds away from themselves, at least from the vicinity of the breeding territory. For instance, on April 7, 2019, in the Beyisheke area, a pair of adults persistently chased a juvenile away from their nest. However, even during this time, it is possible to observe both adult and young Golden Eagles soaring together. Actually, the main mystery of the ecology of Golden Eagles nesting in the foothills is the structure of their spring-summer diet. There are no marmots (Marmota sp.) here, the desert hare (Lepus tibetanus) is rare in most of the area, as well as the chukar (Alectoris chukar) and the pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). Perhaps snakes play a significant role in its summer diet, since we have seen Golden Eagles carrying a snake several times. The earliest case of carrying a snake was noted as early as March 21. The local people’s attitude towards this species is mostly favorable. Three nests were located near roads and were clearly visible from them. Two nests were situated no more than a kilometer away from residential livestock enclosures, where domestic chickens and turkeys were kept alongside sheep. However, Golden Eagles do not attack domestic birds or lambs. This behavior allows them to peacefully coexist with livestock farmers for many years. Generally, the human attitude towards the Golden Eagle in the Kyrgyz Range is mostly neutral. Occasionally, it is kept for falconry purposes, but there are few enthusiasts left, and nowadays it is more of a show than a substantial practice. As a result, Golden Eagle’s population is not significantly impacted by falconers. The trend of making stuffed animals, which was very popular in the late 20th and early 21st centuries has almost disappeared. Occasionally, Golden Eagles die in traps set on other animals. There is a known case of a car accident with a Golden Eagle in the Boom Valley. As a result, the bird lost its sight. In May 2019, a dried-up carcass of a Golden Eagle was found beneath the aerial power line. Upon examination, it was discovered that half of its wing was severed with a very clean cut along the ulna and radius bones. This undoubtedly indicates a high speed collision. Most likely, the bird dived for prey and did not notice a conductor at least 10 centimeters thick against the background of the mountains. In total, the number of discovered nests, their location in areas of high human activity, and the attitude of the local population are driving us to the conclusion that the population of the Golden Eagle in the eastern part of the northern macro slope of the Kyrgyz Range is in a favorable state.