Eastern Coyotes Research Articles

Ecological niche differentiation across a wolf‐coyote hybrid zone in eastern North America

AbstractAimHuman‐caused habitat alteration and disturbance have promoted widespread loss of species’ reproductive barriers, leading to hybridization and attendant changes in the distribution, abundance and interactions of most species. In theory, hybrids should have intermediate niche occupancy features compared to parental groups, thereby potentially leading to fundamental changes in the role of organisms in an ecosystem. Yet, there is a gap in our empirical understanding of how hybrids differ in their niche characteristics compared to parental types; this uncertainty is especially true for large carnivores that range over large spatial extents and have high behavioural plasticity in their niche characteristics or in the environments that they inhabit. We sought to test whether eastern wolf (Canis lycaon) – eastern coyote (C. latrans sp.) hybrids exhibited intermediate environmental niche characteristics compared to their progenitors.LocationEastern North America.MethodsWe integrated genetic profiling of georeferenced canid (eastern wolf, eastern coyote, hybrid) samples into species distribution models, to investigate relationships between canid genetic groups and their environment. We used relevant environmental variables to investigate niche overlap and niche breath of hybrids and their parental groups.ResultsSpecies distribution models revealed clear patterns of niche differentiation, with hybrids tending to occur in areas having intermediate environmental niche attributes and niche breadth, compared to parental groups. Niche overlap between hybrids and either parental group was greater than between the two parental groups, further highlighting the intermediate environmental niche that is occupied by hybrids.Main conclusionsWe show that even among wide‐ranging and highly plastic large carnivores, hybrids tend to exhibit intermediate niche characteristics compared to parental groups. Our support for the intermediate phenotype hypothesis highlights its ecological relevance even when faced with coarse observational data, complex genetic structure, large spatial scale and high phenotypic plasticity.

Ungulate predation and ecological roles of wolves and coyotes in eastern North America.

Understanding the ecological roles of species that influence ecosystem processes is a central goal of ecology and conservation biology. Eastern coyotes (Canis latrans) have ascended to the role of apex predator across much of eastern North America since the extirpation of wolves (Canis spp.) and there has been considerable confusion regarding their ability to prey on ungulates and their ecological niche relative to wolves. Eastern wolves (C.lycaon) are thought to have been the historical top predator in eastern deciduous forests and have previously been characterized as deer specialists that are inefficient predators of moose because of their smaller size relative to gray wolves (C.lupus). We investigated intrinsic and extrinsic influences on per capita kill rates of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and moose (Alces alces) during winter by sympatric packs of eastern coyotes, eastern wolves, and admixed canids in Ontario, Canada to clarify the predatory ability and ecological roles of the different canid top predators of eastern North America. Eastern coyote ancestry within packs negatively influenced per capita total ungulate (deer and moose combined) and moose kill rates. Furthermore, canids in packs dominated by eastern coyote ancestry consumed significantly less ungulate biomass and more anthropogenic food than packs dominated by wolf ancestry. Similar to gray wolves in previous studies, eastern wolves preyed on deer where they were available. However, in areas were deer were scarce, eastern wolves killed moose at rates similar to those previously documented for gray wolves at comparable moose densities across North America. Eastern coyotes are effective deer predators, but their dietary flexibility and low kill rates on moose suggest they have not replaced the ecological role of wolves in eastern North America.

Patchy distribution and low effective population size raise concern for an at‐risk top predator

AbstractAimUnderstanding carnivore distribution is important for management decisions that aim to restore naturally regulated ecosystems and preserve biodiversity. Eastern Wolves, a species at risk in Canada, are centralized in Algonquin Provincial Park and their ability to disperse and establish themselves elsewhere is limited by human‐caused mortality associated with hunting, trapping and vehicle collisions. Here, we refine our understanding of Eastern Wolf distribution and provide the first estimates of their effective population size.LocationSouthern Ontario and Gatineau Quebec.MethodsWe used non‐invasive samples, as well as blood samples archived from other research projects, collected between 2010 and 2014 to generate autosomal microsatellite genotypes at 12 loci for 98 Canis individuals. We utilized Bayesian and multivariate clustering analyses to identify Eastern Wolves in regions that were previously unsampled. Both linkage disequilibrium and temporal approaches were used to estimate effective population size of Eastern Wolves.ResultsAssignment tests identified 34 individuals as Eastern Wolves, primarily in or near two provincial parks: Killarney and Queen Elizabeth II Wildlands. Eastern Coyotes were identified in Bon Echo Provincial Park, Frontenac Provincial Park and Gatineau Park, whereas many of the samples were admixed among the different Canis types. Effective population size (Ne) estimates ranged from 24.3 to 122.1 with a harmonic mean of 45.6.Main conclusionsThe identification of Eastern Wolves in the regions of Killarney and Queen Elizabeth II Wildlands Provincial Parks extends the range of Eastern Wolves north of the French River and southward into previously unidentified regions. The effective population size is low and raises concerns for long‐term persistence of this threatened carnivore; estimates are dangerously close to critical values recommended for short‐term persistence. These results provide important information for upcoming Eastern Wolf recovery plans associated with federal and provincial endangered species legislation.

Camera traps at northern river otter latrines enhance carnivore detectability along riparian areas in eastern North America

We evaluated the efficacy of placing camera traps at river otter (Lontra canadensis) latrines (discrete sites in riparian areas where otters regularly deposit scats, urine, and anal secretions) to detect other carnivores occupying Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge, New Jersey, USA. We postulated that scents at latrines may serve as an attractant to other carnivores and evaluated this premise by using camera traps to compare carnivore detection rates (overall and by species) and richness (overall and for each survey month) between latrine (n=5) and non-latrine riparian areas (n=5). On average carnivore richness was about 1.7 times higher than that of a non-latrine, and mean richness was higher at latrines for all survey months. Likewise, the overall carnivore detection frequency was 3.5 times greater at latrines, and the detection frequencies for red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), northern raccoons (Procyon lotor), river otters, mink (Neovison vison), long-tailed weasels (Mustela frenata), and Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana) were greater at latrines. American black bears (Ursus americanus) and eastern coyotes (Canis latrans) where detected more frequently at non-latrines. Our study provides evidence that placement of camera traps at otter latrines may serve as a new and novel approach for monitoring carnivore populations in riparian areas.

Urban conservation: The northeastern coyote as a flagship species

Flagship species have played an important role in defining and promoting various conservation causes. Over the past several years, the importance of and need for conservation in urban environments has grown as our cities and their footprints have dramatically expanded. Yet, cities face constant change and the mark of humans is the landscape’s most prominent feature. This brings new challenges for practicing conservation in cities and in communicating its goals. In this essay, we demonstrate how a flagship species could be used to articulate the themes of urban conservation using the northeastern coyote or coywolf (Canis latrans var. or C. latrans×lycaon) as an example. We demonstrate how the natural history of the northeastern coyote can serve as an entry point to conceptualizing and communicating key concepts including ecosystem novelty (e.g., the northeastern coyote as an unintentional, but anthropogenic hybrid of canid lineages), resilience thinking (e.g., the northeastern coyote as apex predator following a period of defaunation and continued predator control), and the breakdown of the human-nature divide (e.g., the northeastern coyote as possessing elements of wilderness despite being a product of anthropogenic change). These are ideas that have come to define, and challenge, the field of urban conservation.

Effects of land cover on coyote abundance

Context Throughout the world, declines in large mammalian carnivores have led to the release of smaller meso-mammalian predators. Coyotes (Canis latrans) have increased in abundance, distribution and ecological influence following the extirpation of apex predators in North America. Coyotes have had substantial influence on many ecosystems in recently colonised portions of their range, but those influences can vary across land cover types. Thus, understanding the relationship between coyote abundance and land cover may enhance our ability to predict spatial variation in the ecological effects of coyotes. Aims Our objective was to examine the influence of landscape attributes on eastern coyote abundance to ultimately facilitate predictions of spatial variation in the effects of coyotes on prey populations, ecological communities and human interests. Methods We collected count data from repeated visits to 24 sites by eliciting howl responses from coyotes. We fit abundance models to howl-response data to examine the effects of landscape composition and configuration on coyote abundance in a mixed forest/agricultural ecosystem in south-western Georgia, USA. Key results Our investigation revealed that coyote abundance was positively associated with grasslands that were predominantly used for livestock production, and negatively associated with patch diversity. Conclusions Our results supported the prediction that coyotes would be positively associated with open habitats and that they are well adapted for areas structurally similar to the plains of central North America, where the species originated. In addition, these results suggest that aspects of fragmentation, such as patch diversity, can negatively affect coyote abundance. Our results highlight the importance of patch type and landscape juxtaposition on the abundance of coyotes in complex heterogeneous landscapes. Implications Our results further our understanding of the spatial variation in coyote abundances across a recently colonised portion of the species range. Combining howl-response surveys with abundance modelling is a promising approach for studying the associations between population dynamics of vocal canids and landscape structure over large spatial scales.

Spatial Genetic and Body-Size Trends in Atlantic CanadaCanis latrans(Coyote) Populations

Abstract Eastern Canis latrans (Coyote) dispersed into northeastern North America during the last century and into Nova Scotia in the 1970s. En route, Coyotes hybridized extensively with C. lycaon (Eastern Wolf). Coyote populations in northeastern North America contain mitochondrial and nuclear DNA characteristics of both species. In samples collected from Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland, we found mitochondrial DNA haplotypes characteristic of Coyote and/or Eastern Wolf with decreasing haplotype diversity consistent with sequential founder events/bottlenecks moving from west to east generally and on islands. Principal components analysis of a suite of morphological characters indicated that male eastern Coyotes from Nova Scotia with Eastern Wolf mitochondrial DNA are significantly larger than male eastern Coyotes from the same region with Coyote mitochondrial DNA.

Shifts in Attitudes Toward Coyotes on the Urbanized East Coast: The Cape Cod Experience, 2005–2012

The migration of coyotes to northeastern United States since the mid-20th century has increased human–coyote interactions. This article offers insights into the evolution of attitudes toward Eastern coyotes by analyzing survey data from voters on Cape Cod, Massachusetts in 2005 and 2012. Responses were obtained in a region where familiarity and conflict with coyotes was high. The data supported growing acceptance of coyotes and increased opposition to lethal control. While previous research has found women to feel more negative toward and fearful of large carnivores, in this study gender differences in acceptance and fear of coyotes diminished with time. Greater opposition among women to lethal interventions persisted. Future studies should examine the gender and geographic dimensions of attitudinal change to more fully understand attitudes toward wildlife in urbanized environments.

RAD sequencing and genomic simulations resolve hybrid origins within North American Canis.

Top predators are disappearing worldwide, significantly changing ecosystems that depend on top-down regulation. Conflict with humans remains the primary roadblock for large carnivore conservation, but for the eastern wolf (Canis lycaon), disagreement over its evolutionary origins presents a significant barrier to conservation in Canada and has impeded protection for grey wolves (Canis lupus) in the USA. Here, we use 127 235 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) identified from restriction-site associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq) of wolves and coyotes, in combination with genomic simulations, to test hypotheses of hybrid origins of Canis types in eastern North America. A principal components analysis revealed no evidence to support eastern wolves, or any other Canis type, as the product of grey wolf × western coyote hybridization. In contrast, simulations that included eastern wolves as a distinct taxon clarified the hybrid origins of Great Lakes-boreal wolves and eastern coyotes. Our results support the eastern wolf as a distinct genomic cluster in North America and help resolve hybrid origins of Great Lakes wolves and eastern coyotes. The data provide timely information that will shed new light on the debate over wolf conservation in eastern North America.

First regional evaluation of nuclear genetic diversity and population structure in northeastern coyotes ( Canis latrans)

Previous genetic studies of eastern coyotes ( Canis latrans) are based on one of two strategies: sampling many individuals using one or very few molecular markers, or sampling very few individuals using many genomic markers. Thus, a regional analysis of genetic diversity and population structure in eastern coyotes using many samples and several molecular markers is lacking. I evaluated genetic diversity and population structure in 385 northeastern coyotes using 16 common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). A region-wide analysis of population structure revealed three primary genetic populations, but these do not correspond to the same three subdivisions inferred in a previous analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences. More focused geographic analyses of population structure indicated that ample genetic structure occurs in coyotes from an intermediate contact zone where two range expansion fronts meet. These results demonstrate that genotyping several highly heterozygous SNPs in a large, geographically dense sample is an effective way to detect cryptic population genetic structure. The importance of SNPs in studies of population and wildlife genomics is rapidly increasing; this study adds to the growing body of recent literature that demonstrates the utility of SNPs ascertained from a model organism for evolutionary inference in closely related species.

First regional evaluation of nuclear genetic diversity and population structure in northeastern coyotes ( Canis latrans).

Previous genetic studies of eastern coyotes ( Canis latrans) are based on one of two strategies: sampling many individuals using one or very few molecular markers, or sampling very few individuals using many genomic markers. Thus, a regional analysis of genetic diversity and population structure in eastern coyotes using many samples and several molecular markers is lacking. I evaluated genetic diversity and population structure in 385 northeastern coyotes using 16 common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). A region-wide analysis of population structure revealed three primary genetic populations, but these do not correspond to the same three subdivisions inferred in a previous analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences. More focused geographic analyses of population structure indicated that ample genetic structure occurs in coyotes from an intermediate contact zone where two range expansion fronts meet. These results demonstrate that genotyping several highly heterozygous SNPs in a large, geographically dense sample is an effective way to detect cryptic population genetic structure. The importance of SNPs in studies of population and wildlife genomics is rapidly increasing; this study adds to the growing body of recent literature that demonstrates the utility of SNPs ascertained from a model organism for evolutionary inference in closely related species.

First regional evaluation of nuclear genetic diversity and population structure in northeastern coyotes (Canis latrans)

Previous genetic studies of eastern coyotes ( Canis latrans ) are based on one of two strategies: sampling many individuals using one or very few molecular markers, or sampling very few individuals using many genomic markers. Thus, a regional analysis of genetic diversity and population structure in eastern coyotes using many samples and several molecular markers is lacking. I evaluated genetic diversity and population structure in 385 northeastern coyotes using 16 common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). A region-wide analysis of population structure revealed three primary genetic populations, but these do not correspond to the same three subdivisions inferred in a previous analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences. More focused geographic analyses of population structure indicated that ample genetic structure occurs in coyotes from an intermediate contact zone where two range expansion fronts meet. These results demonstrate that genotyping several highly heterozygous SNPs in a large, geographically dense sample is an effective way to detect cryptic population genetic structure. The importance of SNPs in studies of population and wildlife genomics is rapidly increasing; this study adds to the growing body of recent literature that demonstrates the utility of SNPs ascertained from a model organism for evolutionary inference in closely related species.

A protected area influences genotype‐specific survival and the structure of a Canis hybrid zone

It is widely recognized that protected areas can strongly influence ecological systems and that hybridization is an important conservation issue. However, previous studies have not explicitly considered the influence of protected areas on hybridization dynamics. Eastern wolves are a species of special concern and their distribution is largely restricted to a protected population in Algonquin Provincial Park (APP), Ontario, Canada, where they are the numerically dominant canid. We studied intrinsic and extrinsic factors influencing survival and cause-specific mortality of hybrid and parental canids in the three-species hybrid zone between eastern wolves, eastern coyotes, and gray wolves in and adjacent to APP. Mortality risk for eastern wolves in areas adjacent to APP was significantly higher than for other sympatric Canis types outside of APP, and for eastern wolves and other canids within APP. Outside of APP, the annual mortality rate of all canids by harvest (24%) was higher than for other causes of death (4-7%). Furthermore, eastern wolves (hazard ratio = 3.5) and nonresidents (transients and dispersing animals, hazard ratio = 2.7) were more likely to die from harvest relative to other Canis types and residents, respectively. Thus, eastern wolves dispersing from APP were especially vulnerable to harvest mortality. For residents, eastern wolf survival was more negatively influenced by increased road density than for other Canis types, further highlighting the sensitivity of eastern wolves to human disturbance. A cycle of dispersal from APP followed by high rates of mortality and hybridization appears to maintain eastern wolves at low density adjacent to APP, limiting the potential for expansion beyond the protected area. However, high survival and numerical dominance of eastern wolves within APP suggest that protected areas can allow rare hybridizing species to persist even if their demographic performance is compromised and barriers to hybridization are largely absent in the adjacent matrix.

Assessment of coyote–wolf–dog admixture using ancestry‐informative diagnostic SNPs

The evolutionary importance of hybridization as a source of new adaptive genetic variation is rapidly gaining recognition. Hybridization between coyotes and wolves may have introduced adaptive alleles into the coyote gene pool that facilitated an expansion in their geographic range and dietary niche. Furthermore, hybridization between coyotes and domestic dogs may facilitate adaptation to human-dominated environments. We genotyped 63 ancestry-informative single-nucleotide polymorphisms in 427 canids to examine the prevalence, spatial distribution and the ecology of admixture in eastern coyotes. Using multivariate methods and Bayesian clustering analyses, we estimated the relative contributions of western coyotes, western and eastern wolves, and domestic dogs to the admixed ancestry of Ohio and eastern coyotes. We found that eastern coyotes form an extensive hybrid swarm, with all our samples having varying levels of admixture. Ohio coyotes, previously thought to be free of admixture, are also highly admixed with wolves and dogs. Coyotes in areas of high deer density are genetically more wolf-like, suggesting that natural selection for wolf-like traits may result in local adaptation at a fine geographic scale. Our results, in light of other previously published studies of admixture in Canis, revealed a pattern of sex-biased hybridization, presumably generated by male wolves and dogs mating with female coyotes. This study is the most comprehensive genetic survey of admixture in eastern coyotes and demonstrates that the frequency and scope of hybridization can be quantified with relatively few ancestry-informative markers.

Moose (Alces alces) predation by eastern coyotes (Canislatrans) and eastern coyote × eastern wolf (Canislatrans×Canislycaon) hybrids

It has been widely assumed that coyotes (Canis latrans Say, 1823) are incapable of killing adult moose (Alces alces (L., 1758)) and previous studies of coyote predation support this assumption. However, eastern coyotes and eastern coyote × eastern wolf (Canis lycaon Schreber, 1775) are larger than western coyotes and appear to rely on larger prey in some areas. We used a combination of GPS telemetry, genetic analysis, and field investigation to test the hypothesis that eastern coyotes and coyote × wolf hybrids are capable of preying on adult moose in central Ontario. Our hypothesis was supported, as we documented four definitive cases of eastern coyotes and (or) eastern coyote × eastern wolf hybrids killing moose ≥1.5 years old. Predation by coyotes and coyote × wolf hybrids probably does not represent a threat to moose population viability in central Ontario, but our results suggest that researchers and managers in other areas with declining moose populations that are sympatric with eastern coyotes and (or) coyote × wolf hybrids should consider coyote predation as a potential source of mortality.

Benefits and drawbacks of two modelling approaches for a generalist carnivore: can models predict where Wile E. Coyote will turn up next?

Wildlife ecologists frequently make use of limited information on locations of a species of interest in combination with readily available GIS data to build models to predict space use. In addition to a wide range of statistical data models that are more commonly used, machine learning approaches provide another means to develop predictive spatial models. However, comparison of output from these two families of models for the same data set is not often carried out. It is important that wildlife managers understand the pitfalls and limitations when a single set of models is used with limited GIS data to try to predict and understand species distribution. To illustrate this, we carried out two sets of models (generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs) and boosted regression trees (BRTs)) to predict geographic occupancy of the eastern coyote (Canis latrans) on the island of Newfoundland, Canada. This exercise is illustrative of common spatial questions in wildlife research and management. Our results show that models vary depending on the approach (GLMM vs. BRT) and that, overall, BRT had higher predictive ability. Although machine learning has been criticized because it is not explicitly hypothesis-driven, it has been used in other areas of spatial modelling with success. Here, we demonstrate that it may be a useful approach for predicting wildlife space use and to generate hypotheses when data are limited. The results of this comparison can help to improve other models for species distributions and also guide future sampling and modelling initiatives.

Y‐chromosome evidence supports asymmetric dog introgression into eastern coyotes

Hybridization has played an important role in the evolutionary history of Canis species in eastern North America. Genetic evidence of coyote–dog hybridization based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is lacking compared to that based on autosomal markers. This discordance suggests dog introgression into coyotes has potentially been male biased, but this hypothesis has not been formally tested. Therefore, we investigated biparentally, maternally, and paternally inherited genetic markers in a sample of coyotes and dogs from southeastern Ontario to assess potential asymmetric dog introgression into coyotes. Analysis of autosomal microsatellite genotypes revealed minimal historical and contemporary admixture between coyotes and dogs. We observed only mutually exclusive mtDNA haplotypes in coyotes and dogs, but we observed Y-chromosome haplotypes (Y-haplotypes) in both historical and contemporary coyotes that were also common in dogs. Species-specific Zfy intron sequences of Y-haplotypes shared between coyotes and dogs confirmed their homology and indicated a putative origin from dogs. We compared Y-haplotypes observed in coyotes, wolves, and dogs profiled in multiple studies, and observed that the Y-haplotypes shared between coyotes and dogs were either absent or rare in North American wolves, present in eastern coyotes, but absent in western coyotes. We suggest the eastern coyote has experienced asymmetric genetic introgression from dogs, resulting from predominantly historical hybridization with male dogs and subsequent backcrossing of hybrid offspring with coyotes. We discuss the temporal and spatial dynamics of coyote–dog hybridization and the conditions that may have facilitated the introgression of dog Y-chromosomes into coyotes. Our findings clarify the evolutionary history of the eastern coyote.

Taxonomic Implications of Morphological and Genetic Differences in Northeastern Coyotes (Coywolves) (<em>Canis latrans</em> × <em>C. lycaon</em>), Western Coyotes (<em>C. latrans</em>), and Eastern Wolves (<em>C. lycaon</em> or <em>C. lupus lycaon</em>)

The eastern Coyote or Coywolf (Canis latrans × C. lycaon) inhabiting northeastern North America resulted from hybridization between the expanding population of the western Coyote (Canis latrans) and the remnant population of Eastern Wolf (C. lycaon) and possibly domestic dogs (C. lupus familiaris) in the early 20th century. This study compares the body mass of eastern (i.e., northeastern) Coyotes, western Coyotes, and Eastern Wolves and synthesizes the recent literature to gain better insight into the taxonomic relations and differences of closely-related Canis species. Northeastern Coyotes (males = 16.5 kg; females = 14.7 kg) were statistically (P < 0.0001) intermediate in mass between western Coyotes (males = 12.2 kg; females = 10.7 kg) and Eastern Wolves (males = 28.2 kg, females = 23.7 kg), consistent with their hybrid origin, but were numerically closer to western Coyotes. Large Cohen’s d (3.00–8.56), (0.915–0.929), and Cohen’s f (3.28–3.62) values indicated large effect sizes from the body mass comparisons. Eastern Wolves were 61–71% heavier than the same sex in the northeastern Coyotes, which in turn were ca. 35–37% heavier than the same sex in the western Coyotes. Alternatively, western Coyotes were 73–74% of the size of the same sex in the northeastern Coyotes, which in turn were 59–62% of the size of the same sex in the Eastern Wolves. I also attempted to relate mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotypes to body mass. Six of 17 (35.3%) adult female northeastern Coyotes captured in Massachusetts weighed ≥18 kg, heavier than any other described Coyote from outside northeastern North America. Mitochondrial DNA haplotypes associated with these heavy female northeastern canids were C9 = 4, C19 = 1, and C48 = 1. Body mass (kg) and mtDNA haplotype data of 53 northeastern Coyotes (males = 28, females = 25) showed no difference between haplotype and body mass for males (P < 0.852) or females (P < 0.128), suggesting that there is not a particular haplotype (e.g., C1) that is associated with the heavier animals. I propose that the most appropriate name for this hybrid animal is Coywolf (Canis latrans × C. lycaon), rather than a type of Coyote. Coywolves are distinct, being larger than any other population of Coyotes but smaller than Eastern Wolves. I propose that the 5 distinct types of Canis be recognized as: western Coyote, Coywolf (northeastern Coyote), Eastern Wolf (including Red Wolf C. rufus), Gray × Eastern Wolf hybrids (‘Great Lakes’ Wolves; C. lupus × C. lycaon or C. lycaon × C. lupus), and Gray Wolf (C. lupus). The implications for wolf recovery in the northeastern United States is discussed.

Record Pack-density of Eastern Coyotes/Coywolves (Canis latrans × lycaon)

Abstract We report on an eastern coyote or coywolf (Canis latrans × lycaon) pack in a heavily urbanized area at the northern edge of Boston, Massachusetts, living at a high pack density. We radio-collared four members of this social unit, a breeding pair and two of their juvenile offspring and tracked them from May 2004–Apr. 2005. The pack had a small cumulative territory area (overall = 2.05 km2), yet lived at a normal group size (fall = 6–7, winter = 4) for coyotes/coywolves in eastern North America. Fall density for this pack was 2.92–3.41/km2 and winter density was 1.95/km2, representing the highest recorded density for coyotes in this region.

Double-litters in Coywolf, <em>Canis latrans</em> × <em>lycaon</em>, Packs Following the Death or Disappearance of a Resident Territorial Male

Previous research on my Cape Cod, Massachusetts study site documented the killing of a breeding male Coywolf (Canis latrans x lycaon; also called Eastern Coyote) and a subsequent increase in local pack density one year later. This study documents double-litters produced in two packs following the death or disappearance of the original breeding male.