Eastern Congo Research Articles

From Workfare to Economic and Sociopolitical Stability? Evidence from a Randomized Trial in Eastern Congo

Abstract Did a workfare program in Eastern Congo have a lasting impact on economic and sociopolitical outcomes? Men and women in Eastern Congo were randomly assigned to 2,674 four-month job offers, or to the job offer plus a savings incentive, hard-skills training, or both. Eighteen months after the program, labor market and savings outcomes have improved, but there is no change across 12 other economic and sociopolitical outcome families. Regarding labor market outcomes, the most intensive treatment—the job offer plus the savings incentive and hard-skills training—outperforms treatments with only one add-on. This indicates that the savings incentive and hard-skills training, when combined, can create a synergistic impact greater than the sum of their individual effects. The results are mainly driven by female beneficiaries, who start at much lower levels of labor market participation and earnings than men.

PERLINDUNGAN HAK ANAK DALAM KONFLIK BERSENJATA DI KONGO BERDASARKAN CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD 1989

The armed conflict, particularly in the Eastern Congo regions of North Kivu, South Kivu and Ituri, has led to many violations of children's rights. 14.9 million children have been most severely affected by this conflict. There are violations in terms of recruitment, use, detention, abduction, physical and sexual violence, attacks on schools and health facilities. The formulation of the problem of this article is what forms of violations of children's rights in the armed conflict that occurred in Congo based on the UNCRC 1989 and how efforts should be made by Congo in protecting children's rights based on the UNCRC 1989. This article uses normative research methods, descriptive-analytical in nature, drawing conclusions with deductive methods. The results of the research are the form of violations of children's rights committed by Congo, namely the right to survival, the right to protection, the right to growth and development and violating the principle of non-discrimination, the principle of state responsibility, the principle of the right to life and development to the fullest. The conclusion is that Congo should take the best measures to protect children's rights, especially in armed conflict, such as legislative, administrative, social and educational efforts to protect children's rights

A sovereign grant and a franchised state: Tin mineral supply chains in south Kivu of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo

In resource extraction regions, nation-states tend to be depicted as the legal authority sanctioning profitable mining operations in close collaboration with corporate actors in their domestic territories. Especially in post-colonial contexts, corporate sovereignty is the term deployed by anthropologists to depict the acts of power by legally sanctioned corporate actors within a space of negotiation authorised by the state. A problem arises with this framing of sovereignty in contexts where the international norms of liberal democracy and development are violated due to constraints on the domestic authority of the state. In this scenario, the international order imposes itself to restore the authority of the state by governmentalising the security, territory, and market access of the state. Through ethnographic and field survey research in south Kivu of eastern Congo, I argue that the restoration and extension of state authority is a grant given to the state on condition of the responsible exercise of norms and practices of international markets. The tin, tantalum and tungsten (3T) mineral supply chain in south Kivu are an example of such a grant extended by international market actors and their related resource policy regimes to strengthen the state by franchising its apparatuses through practical mechanisms and discourse aimed at implementing traceability of so-called conflict minerals. Here, sovereignty is a position that is made by international market rule delivered through infrastructure in the form of 3T-mineral supply chains that franchise the state with the aim of optimising its fiscal reach and penetration among upstream mineral producers in south Kivu.

How Rural Communities Relate to Nature in Sub-Saharan Regions: Perception of Ecosystem Services Provided by Wetlands in South-Kivu

Research on ecosystem services (ES) has become central to landscape planning, framing the relationship between people and nature. In Sub-Saharan regions, local communities rely heavily on wetlands for various ES. For the first time, we assessed perceptions of ES provided by these wetlands, focusing on marshes, peatlands, swamps, and inland valleys/floodplains in eastern DR Congo. Fieldwork combined with a survey of 510 households, using both open-ended and 35 direct questions, evaluated perceptions of wetland ecosystem services (WESs). The most frequently reported WES were provisioning (38%) and regulating (24%), while supporting (22%) and cultural (16%) were less mentioned. These perceptions varied across wetland types and among communities based on gender, religion, seniority in wetland use, land tenure, and educational level. Rural communities had a deep relationship with nature, shaped by cultural, economic, and geographical factors. Wetlands are viewed positively as sources of goods but also negatively as sources of diseases. A structural equation model (SEM) helped in identifying four latent variables—livelihood, knowledge, personal, and geographical factors—driving WES perceptions. These findings are relevant for developing wetland management policies and suggest including community engagement and collaboration in wetland restoration and regulatory frameworks.

Density structures of the upper mantle in the East African Rift System: implications for the evolution of intracontinental rifting

The East African Rift System (EARS) provides an ideal natural laboratory for studying the mechanisms of tectonic plate breakup and continental drift, as well as a unique perspective for exploring the maturation process of continental rifting and its drivers. This study combines high-resolution satellite gravity data and seismic tomography model with an integrated geophysical approach to reveal the density structures in the upper mantle of the EARS. The results show that the northeastern to central Congo and Zimbabwe Craton exhibit significant high-density anomalies extending up to 250 km, which is indicative of a thicker and more intact lithosphere. In contrast, the Uganda, Tanzania, eastern and southern Congo, and Kaapvaal Craton show shallow high-density anomalies underlain by low-density anomalies that are clearly derived from the deeper mantle, indicating a thining of the lithosphere with some degree of possible melting at the base. The various rift segments of the EARS exhibit different rift morphologies. The Main Ethiopian Rift and the Kenya Rift of the Eastern Rift Branch show strong low-density anomalies, indicating intense melting, which is much stronger than that observed in the Western Rift Branch. However, the two rifts may have originated from the same mantle uplift in which the low-density anomalies of the Eastern and Western Rift Branches connected in the deep upper mantle. The lower portion of the Malawi Rift exhibits weaker low-denstiy anomalies, which can be observed to the south of the Malawi Rift, extending further south as a continuation of the EARS. Combining the results of previous kinetics simulations and our density perturbation results, it can be inferred that the Eastern Rift Branch is mainly affected by active rifting, while the Western Rift Branch is affected by both active and passive rifting.

Modeling Spatio-Temporal Rainfall Distribution in Beni–Irumu, Democratic Republic of Congo: Insights from CHIRPS and CMIP6 under the SSP5-8.5 Scenario

In light of the lack of ground-based observations, this study utilizes reanalysis data from the CHIRPS database and CMIP6 models under the SSP5-8.5 scenario to predict future rainfall in the Beni–Irumu region of eastern DR Congo. The use of reanalysis data offers a viable method for understanding historical and future climate trends in regions with limited ground data. Using a spatial resolution of 0.05°, selected general circulation models (GCMs) were downscaled to CHIRPS data. Analysis of historical rainfall data over 32 years reveals spatial disparities, with high-altitude regions like Mount Stanley experiencing higher annual mean rainfall (1767.87 ± 174.41 mm) compared to lower areas like Kasenyi (863.65 ± 81.85 mm), in line with orographic effects. Future projections under the SSP5-8.5 scenario indicate significant decreases in rainfall for areas such as Oicha (−565.55 mm) in the near term, while regions like Kasindi/Yihunga exhibit moderate decrease (−58.5 mm). In the mid-term, some areas show signs of recovery, with Bulongo experiencing a minor decrease (−21.67 mm), and Kasindi/Yihunga (+152.95 mm) and Kyavinyonge (+71.11 mm) showing increases. Long-term projections suggest overall improvements, with most areas experiencing positive rainfall differences; however, persistent challenges remain in Oicha (−313.82 mm). These findings highlight the dynamic impacts of climate change on rainfall distribution in the Beni–Irumu region, underscoring the need for targeted interventions to address the varied impacts, especially in vulnerable regions like Oicha.

Investigating Multidirectional Violence in Eastern Congo: Owning ‘Genocide’ and Pre-judicial Atrocity

Researching mass violence and genocide in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo is academically, politically, and socially fraught. In this country, multiple claims are laid on genocide as a marker of suffering and destruction. This article discusses research carried out with Banyamulenge soldiers as layered actors in perpetration of mass violence. It discusses their assertions of self-defense and victimhood that touch on other Congolese cases of mass violence. As a group, these soldiers serve as an archetype of the actors in stories of multidirectional mass violence in Congo. The problematic, yet rich, nature of this fieldwork is discussed in two observations: the narrative notion of a group owning genocide as exclusive suffering, and how researchers can approach pre-judicial atrocity, meaning violence that is yet to be established in a legal setting or even in an agreed historical record. I examine the innovation and limitations of seeing subjectivity in Congo-based genocide research, notwithstanding or perhaps because of the highly fraught nature of this term and its uses. These discussions are supported with an analysis of my own positionality as a researcher in this field. The intention is that emerging researchers can apply this discussion of how to approach ownership of genocide and prejudicial atrocity to other contexts, and more broadly encourage subjective approaches in the field of perpetrator research.

Xerox soldiers, YouTube commanders and Twitter brigades: information warfare in eastern Congo

Abstract Researching contemporary warfare requires attention to digital connectivity in contexts of crisis and conflict. This article traces the evolution of information warfare with a focus on the digitization, democratization and polarization of conflict-related communication and discourse. We argue that information warfare amplifies with the advent of social media—multiplying the scales for the conduct of hostilities, reducing distance and duration, and democratizing participation—notably in Africa, a continent often considered a trailblazer of digital innovation. Orthodox scholarship, however, tends to focus disproportionately on cases relevant to the global North. Examples include the global ‘war on terror’ or the Russian war against Ukraine. Investigating protracted violent conflict in the global South instead, our analysis fills an important gap in this literature. Through the prism of the African Great Lakes region, the world's deadliest contemporary war zone, we leverage a counterintuitive perspective of a conflict considered backwards in mainstream analysis. Drawing from long-term field research and digital ethnography, we propose the notion of ‘reciprocal warscapes’, where not only do battlefield events influence the underlying politics of conflict but where, reciprocally, digital warfare increasingly shapes the conduct of war itself.

(Un)leashed potentials: an activist-centered perspective on the political mobilization of motorcycle taxi drivers in eastern DRC

ABSTRACT The re-emergence of competitive elections in Africa has sparked new interest in political mobilization on the continent. Much of this literature focusses on political actors and the strategies they use to mobilize. If the campaign activists are reviewed at all, they are often categorized by their ethnic or religious affiliation. Thereby, abilities and potentials for political participation, which are important within conceptual literature on political mobilization, are side-lined. This article uses an activist-centered perspective to review the political mobilization of motorcycle taxi drivers, eastern Congo. Based on empirical research in 2020 and 2021, it evaluates the mobilization potentials of the so-called motards and their deployment during political action. The article finds that motards possess unique potentials for participating in political campaigns due to their mobility and large social networks but only partially deploy them. While their mobility potential is widely utilized, the mobilization of their social networks is hampered by a lack of allegiances and infrequent contacts with politicians. Based on the research findings, the article advocates expanding the perception of political mobilization in Africa by reflecting on the preconditions of mobilizability such as enabling potentials, interactions with activists and aligned political strategies.

Land use/land cover (LULC) changes modeling and susceptibility mapping using the binary logistic regression at the territorial level in eastern DR Congo

The Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) changes are commonly used to determine the landscape conditions and have significant impacts on the earth's surface processes. During the last three decades, there has been an acceleration of LULC changes in Eastern DR Congo. However, there is no comprehensive overview of the drivers of these changes at the territorial level in this region, even though the knowledge of these drivers is important for land use planning and spatial modeling of environmental changes. Using the Kalehe Territory as a case study, this work sought to fill this gap by analyzing the drivers of LULC changes during the 1987-2020 period. A mixed approach combining remote sensing, Geographic Information System, and logistic regression modeling was used. The results indicated that the prominent LULC changes in the study area are deforestation, built-up area expansion, cropland expansion, and shrubland expansion. These changes are significantly influenced by biophysical factors (slope, altitude, and soil type), conservation zoning, population dynamics, and accessibility factors at different levels. The occurrence of conservation zones decreases the susceptibility to deforestation, built-up land, and cropland expansions. In contrast, the proximity factors (distance to road, artisanal mining, and locality) increase the susceptibility to LULC changes. These factors can be integrated into spatial models to forecast LULC changes susceptibility in this region. Furthermore, the establishment of future land use management policy at the territorial level in eastern DR Congo should be space-specific as the susceptibility of LULC changes shows a spatial trend.

Abstaining from Retaliation: A Story of Restoration Ministry-OEIL in Eastern Congo

Reports of violence flow from everywhere. They make humankind look powerless in front of conflicts and seem inclined to a retaliation culture. Many people prefer to justify retaliation by euphemistic concepts like self-defense, counterattack, letting justice prevail, counteroffensive, etc. This is a mere application of the natural human principle of the lex talionis. In tumultuous zones like the African Great Lakes Region in general and Eastern Congo in particular, one might expect escalation of conflicts if retaliation is the only option. However, the advent of Christianity in our societies has strengthened a new culture of reconciliation among opponent groups as a way out of violent conflicts. In a world immersed in retaliation culture, a message about raising a culture of reconciliation by abstaining from retaliation sounds like naïveté or treason. This paper sets out to respond to this question: How does reconciliation become an antidote to retaliation in the Eastern Congo context? Using Case Study method, the objective of this study is to present biblical, ethical, and practical ways of breaking the circle of violence and building a culture of peace. In Eastern Congo, Restoration Ministry-OEIL is one of the Christian organizations that strive to promote reconciliation among ethnic communities. It raises awareness of the root causes of Eastern Congo crisis from their local, national, regional, and international dimensions. Therefore, its story constitutes historical evidence of the possibility of abstaining from retaliation despite the horrors of violence endured. Its peacemaking method is a good example of a contextual theology of reconciliation from indigenous practices.

Crustal evolution of the northern Nyika Subdomain of the Palaeoproterozoic Ubendian belt in Malawi

The Ubendian belt extends from eastern Congo through SW Tanzania and NW Zambia across northern Malawi and into Mozambique. It results from the Palaeoproterozoic accretion of a number of crustal blocks followed by the collision of the Tanzanian and Congo cratons. The Ubendian belt has been classically divided into eight “terranes”, (termed “subdomains” in this work), based on rock assemblage, magmatic and metamorphic history. This paper is concerned with the geological evolution of the southernmost of these, the Nyika Subdomain.We present an extensive dataset to decipher the geological history of the northern part of the Nyika Subdomain, including field observation, LA-ICP-MS U/Pb geochronology on zircon and monazite and a metamorphic petrological study of the extensive characteristic migmatitic cordierite-bearing gneisses. The U/Pb zircon data records four magmatic pulses. The first is represented by xenocrysts dated between 2200 and 2150 Ma. The second, major pulse is dated at ca. 2030 Ma, followed by minor magmatic activity at ca. 1980 Ma. This event is coeval with regional granulite facies metamorphism (ca. 780 °C and 0.6 Gpa), constrained in age U/Pb monazite and xenotime dated at 1977 ± 14 Ma and 1984 ± 13 Ma, respectively and also probably dates the collision between the Congo and Tanzania cratons. A fourth event represented by the intrusion of the Nyika Suite granites at 1944 ± 7 Ma terminates the Palaeoproterozoic history. There follows a long time interval with no recorded orogenic history before the tectonic activity during the Neoproterozoic Pan African orogeny. The regional significance of the evolution of the Nyika Subdomain with respect to the adjacent Ufipa Subdomain and the “Bangweulu Block” to the west are discussed within the framework of the Ubendian orogeny and the wider Palaeoproterozoic history of the region.

On the Origins of Direct Rule: Armed Groups and Customary Chiefs in Eastern Congo

On the Origins of Direct Rule: Armed Groups and Customary Chiefs in Eastern Congo

On the Origins of Direct Rule: Armed Groups and Customary Chiefs in Eastern Congo

On the Origins of Direct Rule: Armed Groups and Customary Chiefs in Eastern Congo

Paths in the eastern Congo rainforest: Vernacular histories, colonial interpretations and linguistic data on the settlement of the lower Lualaba

Paths in the eastern Congo rainforest: Vernacular histories, colonial interpretations and linguistic data on the settlement of the lower Lualaba

Maternal Health Care Service Utilization in the Post-Conflict Democratic Republic of Congo: An Analysis of Health Inequalities over Time.

This study assessed inequality in maternal healthcare service utilization in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, using the Demographic and Health Surveys of 2007 and 2013-2014. We assessed the magnitude of inequality using logistical regressions, analyzed the distribution of inequality using the Gini coefficient and the Lorenz curve, and used the Wagstaff method to assess inequality trends. Women were less likely to have their first antenatal care visit within the first trimester and to attend more antenatal care visits when living in eastern Congo. Women in rural areas were less likely to deliver by cesarean section and to receive postnatal care. Women with middle, richer, and richest wealth indexes were more likely to complete more antenatal care visits, to deliver by cesarean section, and to receive postnatal care. Over time, inequality in utilization decreased for antenatal and postnatal care but increased for delivery by cesarean sections, suggesting that innovative strategies are needed to improve utilization among poorer, rural, and underserved women.

Basic Health Service Delivery to Vulnerable Populations in Post-Conflict Eastern Congo: Asset Mapping.

Populations in post-conflict settings often have increased healthcare needs, residing in settings where basic services needed to maintain good health may be non-existent or hard to access. Therefore, there is a need for better identification and reallocation of resources as part of the post-conflict health rehabilitation effort. Assets can be described as the collective resources that individuals and communities have at their disposal, which protect against adverse health outcomes and promote health status. This study applies an asset-based approach to explore the most optimal design of health services and to identify the resource constraints for basic health service delivery to the most vulnerable communities in eastern Congo. We implemented the asset mapping in two phases. Firstly, we combined a qualitative survey with community walks to identify the assets already present in the communities. Secondly, we conducted group discussions to map out assets that are the core of asset-based community development (ABCD) practice. We finally documented all assets in a Community Asset Spreadsheet. Overall, 210 assets were identified as available and potentially valuable resources for the communities in eastern Congo. Among them, 57 were related to local associations, 23 to land and physical environments, 43 to local institutions, 46 to individuals, 35 to economy and exchange, and only 6 to culture, history, and stories. Drawing upon the findings of the qualitative survey, community walks, and group discussions, we concluded that an important number of resources are in place for basic health service delivery. By activating existing and potential resources, the most vulnerable populations in eastern Congo might have the required resources for basic health service delivery. Our findings support the use of an asset-mapping research method as appropriate for identifying existing and potential resources for basic health services in a post-conflict setting.

Rwanda’s War in Mozambique: Road-Testing a Kigali Principles approach to counterinsurgency?

ABSTRACT Rwandan military behavior in Mozambique operationalizes Kigali’s rhetorical commitment to aggressively defend endangered civilians. The counterinsurgency doctrine applied in Cabo Delgado balances insurgent pursuit and civilian protection through a combination of contact patrolling and tactical restraint. This formula demonstrates learning from the country’s past experience with domestic rebellion and international peacekeeping but contrasts sharply with Rwandan army conduct in eastern Congo. The disparity suggests Rwandan battlefield demeanor is conditioned by institutional culture and role conception. The campaign underscores the influence of ideology on Rwandan soldiers' self-understanding and complicates the equivalence of nondemocratic regime type with repressive strategies of counterinsurgency.

Profile of health care workers in a context of instability: a cross-sectional study of four rural health zones in eastern DR Congo (lessons learned)

BackgroundThe crisis in human resources for health is observed worldwide, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. Many studies have demonstrated the importance of human resources for health as a major pillar for the proper functioning of the health system, especially in fragile and conflict-affected contexts such as DR Congo. However, the aspects relating to human resources profile in relation to the level of performance of the health districts in a particular context of conflicts and multiform crises have not yet been described.ObjectiveThis study aims to describe the profile of staff working in rural health districts in a context of crisis and conflicts.MethodsA cross-sectional study was carried out from May 15, 2017 to May 30, 2019 on 1090 health care workers (HCW) exhaustively chosen from four health districts in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Idjwi, Katana, Mulungu and Walungu). Data were collected using a survey questionnaire. The Chi2 test was used for comparison of proportions and the Kruskal–Wallis test for medians. As measures of association, we calculated the odds ratios (OR) along with their 95% confidence interval. The α-error cut-off was set at 5%.ResultsIn all the health districts the number of medical doctors was very insufficient with an average of 0.35 medical doctors per 10,000 inhabitants. However, the number of nurses was sufficient, with an average of 3 nurses per 5000 inhabitants; the nursing / medical staff (47%) were less represented than the administrative staff (53%). The median (Min–Max) age of all HCW was 46 (20–84) years and 32% of them were female. This was the same for the registration of staff in the civil service (obtaining a registration number). The mechanism of remuneration and payment of benefits, although a national responsibility, also suffered more in unstable districts. Twenty-one percent of the HCW had a monthly income of 151USD and above in the stable district; 9.2% in the intermediate and 0.9% in the unstable districts. Ninety-six percent of HCW do not receive Government’ salary and 64% of them do not receive the Government bonus.ConclusionThe context of instability compromises the performance of the health system by depriving it of competent personnel. This is the consequence of the weakening of the mechanisms for implementing the practices and policies related to its management. DR Congo authorities should develop incentive mechanisms to motivate young and trained HCW to work in unstable and intermediate health districts by improving their living and working conditions.

Adaptive programming and going with the grain: IMAGINE's new water governance model in Goma, DRC

AbstractMotivationThis article explores adaptive approaches to development programmes that aim at improving service provision in underperforming sectors in fragile and conflict‐affected states (FCAS). It does this through a case study of the IMAGINE (Integrated Maji Infrastructure and Governance Initiative for Eastern Congo) public‐private partnership model for water provision in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).PurposeThe processes and decisions that culminated in the model used for IMAGINE emphasize the need for programming that is culturally and politically aware, responsive to events, learns in real‐time, is entrepreneurial, and works with the grain of local institutions to support change. Detailed case studies of such ways of working are crucial for programmes that seek to challenge and reform the status quo in FCAS.Methods and approachThe article is based on 42 semi‐structured interviews conducted in the summers of 2019 and 2020. They reflect the broad spectrum of actors—individuals, public authorities, and organizations—involved in IMAGINE's evolution.FindingsThe narrative focuses on IMAGINE's attempts to professionalize and commercialize Goma's water sector. It shows how, as IMAGINE repeatedly adapted to ground realities, it took on the characteristics of a public authority, thereby, engendering backlashes that threated its longer‐term goals. However, by revisiting its initial values and logics it was able to get things done and achieve its aims.Policy implicationsIMAGINE's story suggests that adaptive programmes should put politically savvy local development professionals in key positions and enable them to carefully construct coalitions of allies across the systems they aim to disrupt. This may also require them to revisit and adapt their initial ideas, guiding principles, and values as greater understandings of development problems are gained. A public authorities approach, attuned to the logics that programmes seek to address and introduce to FCAS, may help analysts to focus on the implications of such adaptations.