East African Community Member Research Articles

Assessment of the pathogen genomics landscape highlights disparities and challenges for effective AMR Surveillance and outbreak response in the East African community

The East African Community (EAC) grapples with many challenges in tackling infectious disease threats and antimicrobial resistance (AMR), underscoring the importance of regional and robust pathogen genomics capacities. However, a significant disparity exists among EAC Partner States in harnessing bacterial pathogen sequencing and data analysis capabilities for effective AMR surveillance and outbreak response. This study assesses the current landscape and challenges associated with pathogen next-generation sequencing (NGS) within EAC, explicitly focusing on World Health Organization (WHO) AMR-priority pathogens. The assessment adopts a comprehensive approach, integrating a questionnaire-based survey amongst National Public Health Laboratories (NPHLs) with an analysis of publicly available metadata on bacterial pathogens isolated in the EAC countries. In addition to the heavy reliance on third-party organizations for bacterial NGS, the findings reveal a significant disparity among EAC member States in leveraging bacterial pathogen sequencing and data analysis. Approximately 97% (n = 4,462) of publicly available high-quality bacterial genome assemblies of samples collected in the EAC were processed and analyzed by external organizations, mainly in Europe and North America. Tanzania led in-country sequencing efforts, followed by Kenya and Uganda. The other EAC countries had no publicly available samples or had all their samples sequenced and analyzed outside the region. Insufficient local NGS sequencing facilities, limited bioinformatics expertise, lack of adequate computing resources, and inadequate data-sharing mechanisms are among the most pressing challenges that hinder the EAC’s NPHLs from effectively leveraging pathogen genomics data. These insights emphasized the need to strengthen microbial pathogen sequencing and data analysis capabilities within the EAC to empower these laboratories to conduct pathogen sequencing and data analysis independently. Substantial investments in equipment, technology, and capacity-building initiatives are crucial for supporting regional preparedness against infectious disease outbreaks and mitigating the impact of AMR burden. In addition, collaborative efforts should be developed to narrow the gap, remedy regional imbalances, and harmonize NGS data standards. Supporting regional collaboration, strengthening in-country genomics capabilities, and investing in long-term training programs will ultimately improve pathogen data generation and foster a robust NGS-driven AMR surveillance and outbreak response in the EAC, thereby supporting global health initiatives.

Physicochemical and Microbial Quality of Water from the Ugandan Stretch of the Kagera Transboundary River

Increasing global pollution of water resources undermines the efforts invested in the realisation of Sustainable Development Goals. In developing countries, for example, water pollution is exacerbated by poor regulatory structures and improper waste disposal. This study, for the first time, investigated the physicochemical and microbial parameters of surface water from the Ugandan stretch of the Kagera transboundary river. Surface water (n = 135) from downstream, midstream and upstream of the river was sampled between February 2021 and June 2021, and analysed following standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. Further, the samples were analysed using flame atomic absorption spectroscopy for the presence of heavy metals: nickel, lead, chromium, cadmium and copper. The obtained results showed that turbidity (24.77 ± 5.5–43.99 ± 6.87 mg/L), colour (118 ± 8.90–145.2 ± 30.58 Pt-co units), Escherichia coli (4.96 ± 7.01 CFU/100 mL), lead (23.0 ± 11.0–43.0 ± 12.0 µg/L) and cadmium (3.3 ± 1.0–10.1 ± 10.0 µg/L) were at levels that surpassed their permissible limits as per World Health Organization guidelines for potable water. These results are lower than previously reported for the Rwandese stretch of this river, but still present potential health risks to the population whose livelihoods depend on the river. Measures should therefore be instituted by the East African Community member states to mitigate riverine pollution and ensure sustainable use of the Kagera transboundary river.

Effects of Public Debt on Interest Rates in Selected East African Community Member States

East African Community member states have embarked on various strategies to reduce interest rates in the region to boost investment so as to accelerate economic growth. However, despite the many reforms, the interest rates are far higher than in other countries in Africa, which are more developed. In an attempt to bolster investment, these states have increased public debt rapidly, exceeding the debt ratio of 50 per cent of Gross Domestic Product as provided in their treaty. The main objective of this study was to examine the effects of public debt on interest rates in selected East African Community member states. The study was anchored on the loanable fund model and used a descriptive panel research design. The dataset was drawn from World Development Indicators and Penn World Tables for the period 1980 to 2020. The dataset was drawn from secondary sources: World Bank's World Development Indicators, Penn World Tables, Economic Surveys and Statistical Abstracts for the period 1980 to 2020. The Panel Autoregressive Distributed Lag method was used to analyse the study. The study found that public debt had a positive effect on the long-term interest rate in the five countries combined. Therefore, these governments need to take effective measures to pursue fiscal discipline. Additionally, EAC states can use concessional loans, which have more favourable terms like lower interest rates, deferred repayments, and income-contingent repayments

Region‐centric infrastructure policies and the regional politics surrounding Chinese railway projects: Insights from the East Africa region

AbstractThe African Union and regional economic communities have identified infrastructure development, not least the enhancement of railway systems, as a key priority to advance regional and continental integration policy. The keen interest of Chinese actors in Africa's railway sector is largely welcomed as conducive to increasing infrastructural connectivity within and between Africa's sub‐regions. This article argues that regional railway projects must be assessed against regional political contexts, which crucially co‐determine the degree of coordination and cooperation in the context of region‐centric infrastructure policies. Competing national political agendas, exacerbated mostly by China's bilateral engagement with East African Community member states, has intensified East Africa's infrastructure race. This has resulted in a poorly coordinated standard‐gauge railway project along the East African Northern Corridor; consequently, its economic viability is in doubt.Related ArticlesIkeanyibe, Okechukwu Marcellus. 2018. “Bureaucratic Politics and the Implementation of Liberalization Reforms in Nigeria: A Study of the Unbundling and Reorganization of the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation.” Politics & Policy 46(2): 263–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12249.Iwuoha, Victor Chidubem, Nneka Ifeoma Okafor, and Emmanuel Ifeadike. 2022. “State Regulation of Nigeria's Maritime Ports: Exploring the Impact of Port Concession on Both the Regulator and the Operators.” Politics & Policy 50(5): 1032–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12495.McNamara, Madeleine W., John C. Morris, and Martin Mayer. 2014. “Expanding the Universe of Multi‐Organizational Arrangements: Contingent Coordination and the Deepwater Horizon Transportation Challenges.” Politics & Policy 42(3): 346–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12073.

Implications of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Regional Integration in East Africa

Abstract This article uses the regional response against the Corona Virus Disease (COVID-19) pandemic as a proxy for measuring the depth of integration in the East African Community (EAC). The article probes actions and decisions of the EAC member states in combating the COVID-19 pandemic as a litmus test of strength of supranational institutions. To achieve this, a review of the integration process has been undertaken to appraise of the level of depth of integration, achievements and challenges. It sets out by surveying the theoretical debate on regional integration and pertinent issues of necessity and resistance to regional integration. Ultimately, it wishes to establish whether the COVID-19 pandemic was an opportunity for deepening regional integration or it has served to expose the institutional and policy limitations eroding the pillars of integration.

Productivity Factors and the Growth of the Manufacturing Sector among the East African Community Members States: Testing the Adequacy of the Endogenous Growth Hypothesis

Purpose: It is well documented that the manufacturing industry plays a vital role in a country's economic growth and progress. This study benchmarks the endogenous growth paradigm in order to assess the productivity drivers that may affect the output growth of the manufacturing sector in East African Community member states. The empirical model covering the years 2000–2020 was constructed using panel data.
 Methodology: The study adopts a longitudinal research design and tables used to present summary estimates. Analysis has been achieved using stata statistical package version 17.0. A D-GMM estimator was employed to estimate the underlying empirical model.
 Findings: Foreign direct investments, inflation, trade openness, and lending interest rates were shown to be the most influential variables in the rise of manufacturing sector production among EAC member states out of a large sample of productivity indicators analyzed in the study.
 Recommendations: The results show that EAC countries can boost their manufacturing output by attracting more FDI, keeping inflation low, boosting cross-border trade, and enacting policies to lower the costs associated with credit access. Unique in this study is the analysis, first of its kind, of the productivity drivers of the growth in manufacturing sector output in the East African Community member states within the general framework of endogenous growth theory. 

Women Entrepreneurs in East Africa: How Women Integration can boost Entrepreneurial Solutions to Sustainable Development. A Review of Literature

Women’s contributions to sustainable development and trade development are recognized at the national level in the East African community nation’s Frameworks for financial development and trade policy. This paper focuses on examining how women’s Integration can boost Entrepreneurial Solutions to Sustainable Development in the East African Community member states of Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. The researcher employed secondary data to conduct a thorough literature search. On how Women’s Integration can boost Entrepreneurial Solutions to Sustainable Development in the East African community context. The findings indicated that overcoming obstacles including inadequate market access, market competition, Poor business education, inadequate infrastructure, a lack of resources, a lack of access to raw materials, an unreliable electricity supply, and a lack of marketing knowledge, production restrictions, and a lack of storage space. Additionally, having few contacts outside of prejudice and class bias, lack of social acceptance, relationships with the workforce, attitudes of other workers, and society’s low opinion of women are the bigger social hurdles for them to choose entrepreneurship in the East African community Fellow Countries. As a result, the report suggests that governments of East African Community Member States improve state subsidies, create welcoming workplaces, and The East African community region as a whole needs to embrace gender and strengthen the position of women in the advancement of culture, society, politics, the economy, and technology. Member Nations should encourage gender equality and women, effective assimilation, engagement in sustainable growth at all levels, especially in the outcome; eradicate discrimination laws and customs; support efficient education awareness programs aimed at changing negative attitudes toward women, and develop or embrace new technology that will ensure the security of occupation and certified success for females.

The Link between Human Capital Formation and Economic Growth in East Africa

The East African Community members' strategy is focused on achieving smart, sustainable, and inclusive economic growth. This cannot be achieved without the major contribution of skills, knowledge, and innovation, commonly known as human capital formation. It is difficult to believe that these goals could be realized without a good education and training system, training development, better health sector infrastructure, a large diffusion of knowledge in the manufacturing and service sector, and a great effort to create a research-intensive agricultural economy. Most East African economies lack a number of these growth pre-take-off conditions. Employing neoclassical augmented Solow growth theory as the theoretical framework and using panel methodology, the study investigated the role of human capital resources as a factor in stimulating output growth in East Africa. The findings showed that human capital formation was positive and significant to economic growth in East Africa. This study argues that policies and strategies that advocate for accelerated public investment in human capital development will promote productivity growth and further stimulate resilient economic growth in the East African economies.

Performance of Vat System in Tanzania Since Enactment of The Vat Act in 2014

The 2014 Value Added Tax (VAT) reforms focused on reduction of the base alterations and broadening the tax base and also dealt with several legal drafting issues to enhance the effectiveness of the new VAT law with hopes of enhancing revenue collection. The objective of this article is to assess the performance of VAT system in Tanzania in terms of tax payer’s registration and collection efficiencies. This study adopted a quantitative paradigm whereby data were analysed quantitatively through descriptive statistics and ratio analysis for efficiency measurement. Only secondary data were used in this study. The sources of data were reports from the Tanzania Revenue Authority (TRA), the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), the World Bank (WB), IMF and peer-reviewed journal articles on relevant subject matters. The study revealed a total of 4,575 taxpayers who were eligible to be registered for VAT but who were not captured by the VAT tax system by January 2022. As a result, the government is estimated to have lost about TZS 23,350.09 billion during that period. Furthermore, it was found that the contribution of VAT to GDP is 3.6 per cent which is below the country’s expectation threshold of 6 per cent annually and is below the East African Community member states’ average of 4.4 per cent. Both the VAT Efficiency and C-efficiency ratios were not performing well; their averages were 21.9 and 20.7 per cent respectively, below the EAC regional average of 25 per cent. It is recommended to the government to increase VAT registration threshold and reduce the VAT rate. TRA is urged to decentralize the registration of VAT taxpayers to regions so as to improve compliance and administrative efficiency. The study further recommends to TRA to audit the 4,575 taxpayers whose turnovers are above TZS 100 million but are not yet registered and captured within the VAT tax net.

Negative impact of multiculturality on the use of standard Kiswahili in Burundi

Since language and culture are intertwined, acquisition and use of foreign or second language faces cultural obstacles. Belonging to various groups has made Burundians having different perceptions towards Kiswahili. This study intends to explore cultural elements that slow down effective use of Kiswahili in Burundi. It also looks at determining negative impacts of the lack of communication competence in Kiswahili on the integration of Burundi into the East African Community (EAC). This study adopts both qualitative and quantitative method to analyse data. The data were collected using online questionnaire administered to 50 students in Kiswahili department, 13 lecturers of Kiswahili and 10 parents. Findings indicate that Burundians’ negative perceptions towards Kiswahili, language policy, gender and religion bias impede effective use of Kiswahili in Burundi. The results also reveal that the non-effective use of Kiswahili affects negatively Burundi’s capacity to express its needs in EAC. To ensure effective cooperation with other EAC member states, the study recommends Burundians to develop positive perceptions towards Kiswahili.

Trade, GDP value adding activities and income inequality in the East African community

This paper investigates the extent to which the East African Community (EAC) countries have developed economically over time and whether income inequality decreases with economic growth. The relationship between trade and GDP per capita amongst EAC member countries is evaluated using the World Bank’s meta-data of development indicators and the EAC Secretariat’s data spanning from 2000–2019. Convergence in GDP per capita and inequality are tested using Coefficient of variation (CV) and weightedbeta. The results show that agriculture, manufacturing, trade and repair, construction, and transport and storage constituted the top five GDP value adding activities, contributing about 38 percent to total annual GDP. The EAC GDP per capita were diverging in the long run but converging in short to medium terms, implying increase and decrease in the regional income inequality respectively. Agriculture, electricity and gas, transport and storage, real estate activities, public administration, and education were income inequality-increasing sectors. Together with finance and insurance, these sectors were also positively associated with GDP per capita. The exports of EAC member countries were found to be highly concentrated in few sectors and destination markets, implying limited diversification of products and markets. In their quest to diversify, these countries should choose the right mixes of export goods and services keeping in view of the prevailing market factors in importing countries, such as, changing taste and demands.

The Swakopmund Protocol for the protection of expressions of folklore: a review of implementation in Rwanda and Tanzania

... The Swakopmund Protocol is a sui generis standard setting initiative of the African Regional Intellectual Property Organization (ARIPO). This organization is engaged in standard setting specifically designed towards the creation of an intellectual property market of its Member States.1 The Protocol elaborates on the objectives of ARIPO, which are articulated in Article 111 of the Lusaka Agreement to include the promotion of the harmonization and development of the intellectual property laws and matters related thereto. The Swakopmund Protocol lays down minimum standards in broad norms for the Member States to follow. The implementation of the Protocol is of significance since the community control of third-party use of their expressions of folklore could be enhanced by national legislation.2 Five out of seven East African Community (EAC) Member States are parties to the Lusaka Agreement under which the Swakopmund Protocol was adopted.3 Further to that, for the effective protection of expressions of folklore, EAC Member States agreed to harmonize their respective laws, inter alia with the view to have common standards for the protection of expressions of folklore. This is underpinned in Article 119(f) of the EAC Treaty, which requires uniform standards to protect expressions of folklore in East Africa. Despite such provisions, disparities and inconsistencies still exist in East Africa, in particular Rwanda and Tanzania.

Integration into regional or global value chains and economic upgrading prospects: an analysis of the East African Community (EAC) bloc

The aim of the study was to assess the integration into regional or global value chains and economic upgrading prospects in the East African Community (EAC) bloc. We conducted a comparative analysis of participation in global value chain (GVC) among EAC member states and assessed the determinants of economic upgrading in the region using UNCTAD-Eora GVC Panel data from 2005 to 2018. The results show that Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda are relatively better integrated through two channels of GVC participation, namely foreign value added (FVA) and domestic value added. However, for indirect-value added channel, Kenya had the highest score, the rest member states had relatively lower mean scores. The overall results show that EAC’s participation in GVC still resides in upstream low- and middle-value-added production activities, which limits its competitiveness compared to other regions. The empirical results show the positive and significant effect of domestic credit, foreign direct investment, quality of institutions and FVA on economic upgrading. However, a positive but insignificant association with economic upgrading was observed for human capital and GDP per capita. Infrastructure quality was negatively and significantly associated with economic upgrading. These results suggest that improving infrastructure connectivity and further strengthening institutional governance would reduce trade costs and promote greater investments, product and service diversification, leading to deeper economic upgrading in the region. At the policy level, the adoption of effective national and regional industrial policies would promote innovation and human capital development, attract foreign direct investment and help address market and coordination deficiencies in the region.

The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on the EAC tourism and hospitality industry

Worldwide, the COVID-19 epidemic has impacted all economies. The study examines the impact of the pandemic on the tourism and hospitality industry in East African Community member nations. This study is a systematic review of Covid19’s influence on the tourist and hospitality industries. The analysis is based on 54 publications collected from the Web of Science and Scopus databases. The current study was motivated by an extensive review of literature. According to these studies, the spread of COVID-19 disease to workers in the tourism industry has put the sector in jeopardy; travel restrictions and tourism guidance have made tourism and hospitality industry suffer from severe reduction of revenues. All these studies however do not clarify how, the pandemic has impacted tourism and hospitality industry in terms of national park visitors, hotel occupancy, and unemployment in particular. Therefore, the current study assesses the impact of COVID-19’s on tourism and hospitality in the EAC Partner States by using such indicators as the number of international tourists, receipts and tourism jobs generated, visitors to the parks and the rates of hotel occupancy. The study’s findings show that the EAC Partner States lost USD 4.8 billion in foreign tourist earnings and two million jobs in the tourism sector due to COVID-19. The numbers of visitors to the National parks decreased by 65 percent, hotels in the region had an average occupancy rate of less than 30 per cent, which had a substantial impact on their operations. The study recommends to actors in tourism destinations, to have pandemic preparedness and risk management plans.

Microfinance Institutions as a Vehicle for Poverty Eradication in Developing Countries: Evidence from the East African Community Member States

This paper focuses on examining the link that exists between microfinance institutions (MFIs) and poverty eradication efforts in developing countries, specifically focusing on the East African member states of Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. The study was driven by the varying interpretations, debates, and opposing opinions in literature on the effects of MFIs on poverty eradication in developing economies, particularly in the East African Community (EAC). The study used a depth literature search using secondary data on the role of MFIs in poverty eradication in the EAC context. The results pointed out that despite the challenges such as high transaction rates, limited funding and others, microfinance credit has played a significant role in poverty eradication among poor/low-income families in the EAC Member States. Therefore, the study recommends that governments of the EAC Member States should increase government support, and conducive working environments should be provided to ensure microfinance institutions reach as many less privileged individuals as possible so as to raise their economic status.

Compulsory Licences in a Regional Context: An Appraisal of the TRIPS Amendment’s Special Regional Treatment

Abstract Against the backdrop of the regional mechanism carved out under Art. 31bis(3) of the TRIPS Agreement for issuing compulsory licences, the paper critically appraises the mechanism’s viability or otherwise in addressing the challenge of access to essential medicines in a regional context. The paper finds that the mechanism remains severely restricted. First, it does not exempt an importing country within the regional alliance from issuing a separate compulsory licence where a patent is in force on the pharmaceutical product in question. Second, the logic of the mechanism is counterintuitive in that it is prohibited from being used as an instrument to pursue industrial policy objectives, and in a broad sense, a public-health-related industrial agenda. Using the East African Community (EAC) as a case study, the paper practically reveals how the identified distortions inhibit the use of compulsory licences within a regional coalition. The paper also examines how the potency of the TRIPS transition period, which excludes 80% of EAC member states from granting pharmaceuticals patents until 2034, is being whittled down by the African Regional Intellectual Property Organization’s (ARIPO) obligations and unclear domestic legislation. The paper recommends an overhaul of the TRIPS amendment’s regional mechanism for better effectiveness in driving pharmaceutical access.

Finance-Growth Nexus in Eastern and Southern African Countries: Insights from a Panel ARDL Analysis

This study analysed the finance-growth nexus for countries in the East African Community (EAC) and the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC). This was done an attempt to identify countries where Financial Sector Development (FSD) has the largest/least growth effect and the regional bloc moderation in such effect based on panel Error correction ARDL model. The aggregate data were obtained from the World Development Indicators (WDI) for a total of 14 countries, five (5) of which being in the EAC and the rest being in the SADC. The observations suggested that the regional bloc moderation effect transforms an otherwise insignificant effect of FSD on growth into a positive one specifically for broad money growth among the EAC member countries. This is a signal that a monetary union for EAC member countries could spur an overall welfare gain. Growth-finance nexus however, exhibited short and long run trade-offs in countries within the SADC. In the short run there have been significant GDP growth responses as a result of FSD but such effect turns out to be detrimental in the long run. As such difficult choices had to be made between addressing short run GDP volatility and achieving higher GDP growth in the SADC.

Effect of African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) on Trade Facilitation in East African Community Member Countries: A Study in Kenya

The aim of this paper is to assess the effect of African continental free trade Area on trade facilitation in East Africa. The continental free trade area was established in an effort by the member countries to stir economic growth and development through facilitation of cross-border trade. The agreement was expected to commence in 2021, but most countries are yet to implement it effectively. This study seeks to establish the effect of member countries’ commitment, easing of trade barriers and integration of information technology on trade facilitation in East African Community. The study utilized a descriptive research design and targeted trade officials from the 8 East African Community member countries and established traders. Through use of a structure questionnaire, the study collected primary data which was analysed using descriptive statistics. The findings revealed that the commitment of the member countries was essential in promoting trade facilitation in East African Community. Moreover, it was established that through easing of trade barriers, the member countries traded more. The findings further revealed that the integration of digital technology stirred the facilitation of trade within the member countries. It was concluded that the commitment of member countries and easing of trade barriers were not effectively embraced despite being integral in promoting trade facilitation. The integration of ICT was also not effectively upheld, despite this being emphasized on by the African Continental Free Trade Area. The study recommends the need for the member countries in East African Community to focus on key strategies that ensure implementation of the trade agreements for continued trade facilitation within the member countries.

Transmission Channels of FDI and Trade Openness on Export Competitiveness among (EAC) Members

This study determines transmission channels of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Trade Openness (TO) in improving the export competitiveness among the East African community member countries. Different from other studies, this study used both inflow of FDI and accumulated FDI (stock). The study finally applied Fixed Effect Model (FEM) cover the period from 2010 to 2019. On one front, the results revealed that FDI and trade openness are complemented with technological development and economic freedom. However, the results of the economic freedom and technological advances failed to enhance FDI stock effect to export competitiveness. Policy reforms to improve economic freedom, technological development, and human capital, strengthening the inter-relationship of the domestic sector with FDI and trade openness are required to improve export competitiveness among the EAC member states.

Asymmetric effect, non-linear ARDL, and the J – Curve analysis among East African community members

When a country’s balance of trade persistently records deficits, the most important policy is to devalue the exchange rate. This article aims to explore the symmetric effect of the exchange rate and its transmission channels on the trade balance. The recently developed method of Non-linear Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) was utilized for Quarterly data from 1990 Q1 to 2019 Q4 in unexplored areas of East African Community (EAC -5) members. The study found the presence of robust symmetric and asymmetric negative effects of exchange rate changes on trade balance only in Uganda, both in the short-run and long-run. Meanwhile, there was no evidence of robust J-curve phenomena within EAC members. Generally, the application of exchange rate policy in improving trade imbalance is doubted within the EAC region. Keywords: EAC; Exchange rate; J –curve; nonlinear ARDL.