Earthquakes Of Different Magnitudes Research Articles

Subduction Interface Earthquake Rise-Time Scaling Relations

ABSTRACT The slip duration in a fault plane, also known as the rise time (Tr), is determined in finite-fault rupture models (FFRMs) through the analysis of seismic source inversions using strong ground-motion (SGM) records and teleseismic data. For subduction interface earthquakes (megathrust), models exist that provide estimates for Tr values. The finite-source rupture model database and National Earthquake Information Center databases include FFRMs that allow for the extension of source-scaling relations. Currently, Tr versus seismic moment (M0) scaling relations specifically derived for large megathrust earthquakes in the near-source region are scarce. The relationship between stress drop and M0 is not straightforward; therefore, the logarithmic distribution of stress drop among earthquakes of different magnitudes (Mw) appears to be constant or self-similar. This self-similarity refers to a symmetry of the time-dependent fields, which remain unchanged under certain scale transformations in space and time characterized by similarity exponents and a function of the scaled variable, called the scaling function. In this study, Tr scaling has been conducted using 45 FFRMs derived from large megathrust earthquakes (Mw≥7.3) obtained from the previously mentioned databases. The scaling relation derived from the FFRMs based on SGM records closely approximates log(Tr)=const+1/3log(M0), which agrees with the self-similarity assumption for earthquake ruptures. On the other hand, the scaling relation obtained from the teleseismic dataset exhibits a smaller slope, indicating that the teleseismic data may overestimate source time characteristics compared with SGM data from seismic stations located close to the source.

A Comprehensive Case Study on the Historical Earthquakes in Major Fault Zones of Bangladesh

An earthquake is a fatal natural disaster that occurs suddenly without any prior signal. Every year the world faces many earthquakes with magnitudes varying from low to high. The uncertain nature of earthquakes makes it almost impossible to predict the exact time of occurrence. So, it is necessary to take precautionary steps before an earthquake hits. To take preventive measures, a proper study of tectonic plates and faults must be done to gain insight into the study area's susceptibility. Due to the geological characteristics and tec-tonic plate activity, Bangladesh risks facing an Earthquake. Every year, Bangladesh also faces some number of earthquakes of different magnitude. This study analyzes the earth-quake events in different fault zone of Bangladesh in the last 49 years. The study showed that the Tripura Fault and Shillong Plateau are the most active among the five major faults. The frequency of these faults is higher than the other ones. Though the past earthquake magnitudes were small, it is still concerning that the Tripura fault and Shillong plateau show much more frequent seismic activities that may indicate a bigger earthquake incident in the near future. The epicenter depth of most earthquakes is within 40 km from the sur-face, which is a concerning issue because most earthquakes are shallow earthquakes that tend to have more damaging properties than deep ones.

Dynamic parameters of weak earthquakes on the southeastern slope of the Baltic Shield

The dynamic parameters of earthquake sources characterize the features of the process of destruction of the seismogenic medium. These parameters are defined in the world for earthquakes of different magnitudes and different genesis. For the seismically weakly active region of Fennoscandia, the source characteristics of earthquakes were characterized in the 1990s from analog records. In this paper, we obtained a summary of the indicated valuesfor weak earthquakes with ML=1-2 that took place on the southeastern slope of the Fennoscandian shield in 2009-2019 for two earthquake swarms of different origins - tectonic Kouvola and technogenic Erkilia. The work was carried out according to the data of the St. Petersburg digital seismic network. In the process of research, using seismograms of the network, the spectra of direct waves Sg were constructed, the values of the seismic moment, corner frequency, source radius and stress drop for 15 earthquakes of a tectonic and technogenic nature were calculated. The results obtained, although they have a spread in values, do not differ much from the world averages. However, it turned out that the seismic moment and stress drop significantly depend on the genesis of events.

Application of 3D Error Diagram in Thermal Infrared Earthquake Prediction: Qinghai–Tibet Plateau

Earthquakes are the most dangerous natural disasters, and scholars try to predict them to protect lives and property. Recently, a long-term statistical analysis based on a “heating core” filter was applied to explore thermal anomalies related to earthquakes; however, some gaps are still present. Specifically, (1) whether there are differences in thermal anomalies generated by earthquakes of different magnitudes has not yet been discussed; and (2) thermal anomalies in high-spatial-resolution data are often distributed in spots, which is not convenient for statistics of thermal anomalies. To address these issues, in this study, we applied high-spatial-resolution thermal infrared data to explore the performance of the “heating core” for earthquake prediction at different magnitudes (i.e., 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, and 5). The specific steps were as follows: first, the resampling and moving-window methods were applied to reduce the spatial resolution of the dataset and extract the suspected thermal anomalies; second, the “heating core” filter was used to eliminate thermal noise unrelated to the seismic activity in order to identify potential thermal anomalies; third, the time–distance–magnitude (TDM) windows were used to establish the correspondence between earthquakes and thermal anomalies; finally, the new 3D error diagram (false discovery rate, false negative rate, and space–time correlation window) and the significance test method were applied to investigate the performance under each minimum magnitude with training data, and the robustness was validated using a test dataset. The results show that the following: (1) there is no obvious difference in the thermal anomalies produced by earthquakes of different magnitudes under the conditions of a “heating core”, and (2) the best model with a “heating core” can predict earthquakes effectively within 200 km and within 20 days of thermal anomalies’ appearance. The binary prediction model with a “heating core” based on thermal infrared anomalies can provide some reference for earthquake prediction.

Weak Predictability of Rupture Growth Evidenced by P Waves: Implications for Earthquake Early Warning

ABSTRACT The time-evolving growth behavior during the early phase of an earthquake rupture and when distinguishable features arise for events of different sizes are critical issues for real-time seismology. These issues are related to the key concept of rupture predictability, which directly determines the warning time and the potential of earthquake early warning systems. P waves carry the temporal information of rupture development, which provides us with an important clue to investigate and understand the source physical process in the early stage of the rupture. In this article, for 36 shallow, moderate- to large-magnitude earthquakes (5.0≤Mw≤9.1) that occurred in Japan and China, we systematically assess and quantify the temporal evolution of the P-wave velocity amplitude (V-env) and the characteristic period (τc). The initial growth rate and the secondary evolution parameters are extracted to investigate the main features of the early rupture behavior. Our results show that the V-env exhibits distinguishable growth features after a similar steep rise affected by propagation attenuation for earthquakes of different sizes. Near the distinguishable points, the bell-shaped fluctuations are generally observed in the τc curves, and the fluctuation amplitude is positively correlated with the final magnitude. The distinct evolution of P waves radiated from earthquakes of different magnitudes occurs earlier than one-half of the rupture duration, which constitutes new evidence supporting the weak predictability of ruptures. Finally, we discuss the implications for the physical source mechanism and earthquake early warning.

Dynamic analysis of 10 MW offshore wind turbines with different support structures subjected to earthquake loadings

This paper investigates the structural dynamics of 10 MW offshore wind turbines (OWTs) supported by different substructures (Monopile, Tripod and Jacket) under wind, wave, current and earthquake loadings. The support structures are modeled using ANSYS, a finite element models (FEM) software package, by considering the nonlinear soil structure interaction (SSI) effects and earthquake loadings. A spring-displacement method has been employed to model the earthquake excitations on the support structures. FAST and AQWA tools have been used to analyze wind and wave loads which are fed into ANSYS via a dynamic link library (DLL) as external loads for combination with the earthquake loads to predict the support structures’ responses. Earthquakes of different magnitudes have been simulated in the study. Under the earthquake with a magnitude of 7 measured on a Richter scale, the tower top displacements of the tripod, jacket and monopile are 1.42 m, 1.75 m and 1.80 m, respectively. The relative position of the displacement trajectory of the tripod OWT is nearest to the centroid of the yaw bearing. The maximum stresses of the jacket and tripod are respectively 5.7 times and 2.3 times that of the monopile. The average stress of the jacket and tripod are respectively 0.74 times and 0.56 times that of the monopile. This phenomenon shows that the tripod and jacket have a good stability, but with a high risk of local failure under earthquakes. The responses of the piles are mainly dominated by the seismic loads, rather than the wind and current loads. It was observed that the piles of the jacket and tripod OWT, which have small diameters and thin wall thickness, are more sensitive to earthquakes. Thus, the jacket and tripod OWTs may rely on the large stiffness offered by substructures to improve their stability. These phenomena can provide powerful insight into the seismic design of different substructures.

Automatic Detection of Slow Slip Events Using the PICCA: Application to Chilean GNSS Data

The detection of transient events related to slow earthquakes in GNSS positional time series is key to understanding seismogenic processes in subduction zones. Here, we present a novel Principal and Independent Components Correlation Analysis (PICCA) method that allows for the temporal and spatial detection of transient signals. The PICCA is based on an optimal combination of the principal (PCA) and independent component analysis (ICA) of positional time series of a GNSS network. We assume that the transient signal is mostly contained in one of the principal or independent components. To detect the transient, we applied a method where correlations between sliding windows of each PCA/ICA component and each time series are calculated, obtaining the stations affected by the slow slip event and the onset time from the resulting correlation peaks. We first tested and calibrated the method using synthetic signals from slow earthquakes of different magnitudes and durations and modelled their effect in the network of GNSS stations in Chile. Then, we analyzed three transient events related to slow earthquakes recorded in Chile, in the areas of Iquique, Copiapó, and Valparaíso. For synthetic data, a 150 days event was detected using the PCA-based method, while a 3 days event was detected using the ICA-based method. For the real data, a long-term transient was detected by PCA, while a 16 days transient was detected by ICA. It is concluded that simultaneous use of both signal separation methods (PICCA) is more effective when searching for transient events. The PCA method is more useful for long-term events, while the ICA method is better suited to recognize events of short duration. PICCA is a promising tool to detect transients of different characteristics in GNSS time series, which will be used in a next stage to generate a catalog of SSEs in Chile.

Hydraulic Fracturing‐induced Seismicity at the Hot Dry Rock Site of the Gonghe Basin in China

AbstractHot dry rock is becoming an important clean energy source. Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) hold great promise for the potential to make a contribution to the energy inventory. However, one controversial issue associated with EGS is the impact of induced seismicity. In August 2019, a hydraulic stimulation experiment took place at the hot dry rock site of the Gonghe Basin in Qinghai, China. Earthquakes of different magnitudes of 2 or less occurred during the hydraulic stimulation. Correlations between hydraulic stimulation and seismic risk are still under discussion. Here, we analyze the hydraulic stimulation test and microseismic activity. We quantify the evolution of several parameters to explore the correlations between hydraulic stimulation and induced seismicity, including hydraulic parameters, microseismic events, b‐value and statistical forecasting of event magnitudes. The results show that large‐magnitude microseismic events have an upward trend with an increase of the total fluid volume. The variation of the b‐value with time indicates that the stimulation experiment induces small amounts of seismicity. Forecasted magnitudes of events can guide operational decisions with respect to induced seismicity during hydraulic fracturing operations, thus providing the basis for risk assessment of hot dry rock exploitation.

A Study on the Law of Non-Uniformity of Rock Deformation under Quasi-Static Loading

Under internal and external factors, a series of slow deformation waves with different energy levels will occur in geological bodies. Slow deformation waves propagate in earth plates or along faults and may trigger earthquakes of different magnitudes. This wave is formed by the deformation and cracking of solid under external actions. The study of slow deformation waves showed that there are similarities in wave propagation at the earth’s plate scale and laboratory scale levels. A uniaxial compression test is conducted on a small-scale cuboid red sandstone sample under a certain loading speed to investigate the propagation law of the deformation wave. The digital image correlation technique is used to investigate the variation characteristics of the deformation wave of the sample. Furthermore, the variation characteristics of the three strain components of the slow deformation wave generated during the loading process are clarified. The deformation wave’s propagation speed is determined according to the motion of the localized maximum of the strain component in the loading direction. Simultaneously, semi-quantitative analysis is undertaken to reveal the temporal and space non-uniformity presented in the damaged sample surface.

Strauss point modeling for seismic activity: a case study of earthquakes

Earthquakes have brought fear to humans due to their unpredictable nature and vast capacity for ruination. The spatial point process plays an essential role in investigating spatial statistics and has become an active research area. This study investigates the behavior of earthquake occurrences using the Strauss point model. The intensity and spatial association among these seismic events are examined using distance-based G-function and model fitting. Dataset used in this study is the earthquakes that occurred in various parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan. Results reveal that the intensity plot exhibits the clustered pattern of earthquake events. Distance-based G-function indicates that the distance from one massive earthquake (magnitude greater than 5) to another large earthquake is 1500 m, demonstrating that the large earthquakes occurred close to each other. The estimated parameters of the models suggest that the intensity of the events is inversely proportional to the distance. The intensity of the earthquake events also increases as the depth decreases. The point pattern modeling results show that the Strauss point model is competent to capture the pattern of the earthquake locations depending upon the interaction between earthquakes of different magnitude. Results disclosed that an additional exploratory variable (depth of earthquake) in the model offers performance gain as compared to the single exploratory variable. Strauss model comprehensively examines the dataset.

Strong Ground Motion Simulation for Forecasting the Probable Seismic Impacts in the Territory of the Republic of North Ossetia–Alania

Abstract—The models based on the empirical data are proposed for probabilistic forecasting the characteristics of strong ground motions (SGM) from the earthquakes, potentially dangerous for the territory of the Republic of North Ossetia–Alania. We consider the models of SGM characteristics that are most important in the engineering practice (macroseismic intensities of ground shaking, peak ground accelerations, periods, durations, spectra, and strong-motion accelerograms) in the vicinity of the sources of earthquakes of different magnitudes and at different distances from the sources in application to the seismogeological conditions of the study region. The models are developed using both the conventional statistical analysis of a large amount of data on instrumental recording and macroseismic description of the strong and perceivable earthquakes in the Caucasus and other seismically active regions of the world and a new method for reconstructing the spectra of the strong earthquakes from their macroseismic field. The cross-comparison of the estimates obtained based on the proposed models with each other and with the estimates obtained by the other authors has shown that they are fairly realistic and reliable.

Kinematic Response of Pile Foundations in Liquefiable Soil of Indo-Gangetic Basin During Earthquake

Indo-Gangetic Basin (IGB) lying toward south of the Himalayas formed of deep alluvial layers is tectonically very active. It experienced some great earthquakes in past and signs of liquefaction had been reported by previous researchers. Understanding of deep alluvial deposit impact and liquefaction phenomena on response of pile foundations under seismic loading is of immense importance. This paper presents linear as well as nonlinear analyses of pile foundations of approach viaduct of a rail–road bridge near Patna situated in the liqueafiable soil of IGB. The above study was based on the parameters obtained from both field and laboratory tests. Six synthetic earthquakes of different magnitudes and peak ground acceleration were considered. A comprehensive state-of-the-art approach of determining kinematic response of pile foundation (considering liquefaction) using finite element method has been presented. A series of analyses were conducted such as free field ground response analysis, eigenvalue analysis for finding modes of vibration and dynamic linear and nonlinear time history analysis using HHT-α (Hilber, Hughes and Taylor) implicit direct method. Mohr–Coulomb criteria and UBCSAND model were used in this analysis. In linear analysis, liquefaction could not be simulated. However, in nonlinear analysis it could be done successfully, because the dynamic nonlinear analysis method has capability to perform investigation in the required strain range of liquefaction and lateral spreading.

Koyna earthquakes: a review of the mechanisms of reservoir-triggered seismicity and slip tendency analysis of subsurface faults

Koyna region in western India experienced more than 1,00,000 earthquakes of different magnitudes (M ~ 1.0–6.3) in the past five decades. Earthquakes in this region are believed to be triggered by a change in fluid pressure due to the percolation of the reservoir (Koyna and Warna reservoir) water into the subsurface. A drilling program was set up by the Ministry of Earth Sciences, India and International Continental Scientific Drilling Program (ICDP) to study the deep subsurface lithology, structure, thermal attributes, etc. as the area is covered by ~ 950 m of thick Deccan basalts. This paper reviews all the hypotheses proposed by earlier workers to explain the mechanism of reservoir trigger causing earthquakes and summarizes such theories to a simple generic model. Slip tendency analysis was further carried out based on the proposed model to explain the dependence of fault slip on fault geometry, rock mechanical properties, stress and fluid gradients. Finally, faults at various depths were characterized (favourably oriented, unfavourably oriented and severely misoriented) based on their potential to go into failure.

AFYONKARAHİSAR İLİ İÇİN POİSSON VE GUMBEL DAĞILIM MODELLERİ İLE DEPREM TEHLİKE ANALİZİ

Bu çalışmada 1900-2019 yılları arasında Afyonkarahisar ve çevresinde meydana gelen depremlere ait veriler dikkate alınarak deprem tehlike analizleri gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu amaçla Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Kandilli Rasathanesi ve Deprem Araştırma Enstitüsü veri tabanından temin edilen, büyüklüğü Mw ≥ 4.0 olan 404 adet deprem verisi kullanılmıştır. Veriler Afyonkarahisar merkezli (38.75° Kuzey Enlemi ve 30.53° Doğu Boylamı) 130 km yarıçaplı dairesel bir alanı kapsamaktadır. Deprem tehlikesinin ortaya konulması amacıyla sismoloji literatüründe kabul gören Gutenberg-Richter Büyüklük-Frekans bağıntısı kullanılmıştır. Farklı büyüklükteki depremlere ait tekrarlanma periyotları ve her büyüklük değeri için deprem tehlikesi Poisson ve Gumbel Uç Değerler dağılım modelleri ile çözümlenmiştir. Farklı kabullere dayanan iki dağılım modelinden elde edilen sonuçlar karşılaştırılmıştır.

Influence of built environment and risk perception on seismic evacuation behavior: Evidence from rural areas affected by Wenchuan earthquake

During the decade after the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, numerous earthquakes of different magnitudes have occurred in the affected areas. The need for immediate emergency evacuation following the occurrence of disaster was unanimously recognized by experts as the safest and most effective response of residents. Moreover, this behavior is directly influenced by residents' perceptions of disaster risk and built environment (BE). To explore the relationship between seismic evacuation behavior and perceptions of risk and BE, this study utilized a random survey in the form of a sample questionnaire in the areas most affected by the Wenchuan earthquake in 2008, combined with exploratory factor analysis and binary logistic regression analysis. Results show that residents' BE and risk perceptions positively affected their evacuation choice behavior. Specifically, when rural residents perceived a reasonable evacuation route and good quality of village roads, they would flee their homes as soon as an earthquake struck. With regard to seismic risk perception, if the residents perceived highly negative consequences from earthquakes, they would escape immediately as soon as an earthquake occurred. This conclusion highlights the importance of strengthening the construction of BE in disaster-prone areas, and raising residents’ awareness and risk perception of earthquake disasters. This study has practical significance in further construction of earthquake-stricken areas.

Seismic Observation and Analysis Based on Three-Component Fiber Optic Seismometer

We demonstrate a three-component fiber optic seismometer for seismic observation, with no electronics in the sensor probe, but relying exclusively on optical fiber in the form of an unbalanced Michelson interferometer, with state-of-the-art performance characteristics. The fiber optic seismometer system is installed in the seismic observation cave at the Earthquake Administration Bureau of Jilin Province, in Changchun, Jilin, China, and has been operating without interruption for more than a year. Two minor earthquakes of different magnitudes recorded by the three-component fiber optic seismometer are analyzed and discussed in detail from the perspectives of time domain and frequency domain signal quality and fidelity. In addition, the recording results of the fiber optic seismometer are compared with those of the traditional electrical-mechanical seismometer co-located at the observation site. Actual observational results of the seismic events show that the three-component fiber optic seismometer can record the seismic waves clearly, with comparable performance as the conventional seismometer.

On the Diurnal Periodicity of Representative Earthquakes in Greece: Comparison of Data from Different Observation Systems

Due to the initiation of the Hellenic Unified Seismic Network (HUSN) in late 2007, the quality of observation significantly improved by 2011. For example, the representative magnitude level considerably has decreased and the number of annually recorded events has increased. The new observational system highly expanded the possibilities for studying regularities in seismicity. In view of this, the authors revisited their studies of the diurnal periodicity of representative earthquakes in Greece that was revealed earlier in the earthquake catalog before 2011. We use 18 samples of earthquakes of different magnitudes taken from the catalog of Greek earthquakes from 2011 to June 2016 to derive a series of the number of earthquakes for each of them and calculate its average diurnal course. To increase the reliability of the results, we compared the data for two regions. With a high degree of statistical significance, we have obtained that no diurnal periodicity can be found for strongly representative earthquakes. This finding differs from the estimates obtained earlier from an analysis of the catalog of earthquakes at the same area for 1995–2004 and 2005–2010, i.e., before the initiation of the Hellenic Unified Seismic Network. The new results are consistent with the hypothesis of noise discrimination (observational selection) explaining the cause of the diurnal variation of earthquakes with different sensitivity of the seismic network in daytime and nighttime periods.

Study of seismicity in the NW Himalaya and adjoining regions using IMS network

The Reviewed Event Bulletin (REB) of the International Data Center (IDC) has been used in order to investigate the seismicity of the Northwest Himalaya and its neighboring region for the time period June 1999 to March 2015 within the geographical coordinates 25–40° N latitude and 65–85° E longitude. We have used a very precisely located earthquake dataset recorded by the International Monitoring System (IMS) Network containing 7,583 events with body wave magnitudes from 2.5 to 6.3. The study area has been subdivided into six regions based on the Flinn-Engdahl (F-E) seismic and geographical regionalization scheme, which was used as the region classifications of the International Data Center catalog. The examined region includes NW India, Pakistan, Nepal, Xizang, Kashmir, and Hindukush. For each region, Magnitudes of completeness (Mc) and Gutenberg-Richter (GR) recurrence parameters (a and b values) have been estimated. The Gutenberg-Richter analysis is preceded by an overview of the seismotectonics of the study area. The obtained Mc values vary from 3.5 to 3.9. The lower value of Mc was found mainly in Xizang region whereas the higher Mc threshold is evident in Pakistan region. However, the b values vary from 1.19 to 1.48. The lowest b value is recorded in Xizang region, which is mostly related to the Main Karakoram Thrust (MKT) fault, whereas the highest b values are recorded in NW India and Kashmir regions, which are mostly related to the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) fault. The REB for the selected period has been compared to the most renowned bulletin of global seismicity, namely that issued by the National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC) of the United States Geological Survey (USGS). A study of 4,821 events recorded by USGS in the study region indicates that about 36 % of seismic events were missed and the catalog is considered as complete for events with magnitudes ≥4.0. However, both a and b values are obviously higher than those of IMS catalog. The a and b parameters in the Gutenberg-Richter magnitude–frequency relationship have been utilized to forecast the probability of future earthquakes of different magnitudes and returned periods (recurrence intervals).

Effects of wave passage on torsional response of symmetric buildings subjected to near-fault pulse-like ground motions

This article investigates the effects of wave passage on the torsional response of elastic buildings in the near-fault region. The model of the soil-foundation-structure system is a symmetric cylinder placed on a rigid circular foundation supported on an elastic halfspace. The idealized model is subjected to obliquely incident plane SH waves simulating the action of near-fault pulse-like motions. The response of the structure is assessed in terms of the relative twist between the top and the base of the superstructure. A parametric analysis of the maximum relative twist as a function of the input parameters of the seismic excitation and soil-foundation-structure system is performed to identify the parameters that control the torsional response of buildings due to wave passage in the near-fault region. It is shown that the torsional response is most sensitive to a key parameter of the near-fault ground motion referred to as “pulse period”. Specifically, large rotations are observed when the pulse period is close to the torsional period of the structure. It is also demonstrated that the wave passage effects are controlled by the wave apparent velocity, rather than the local site conditions. Furthermore, broadband near-fault ground motions from three hypothetical earthquakes of different magnitude are generated, and the torsional responses due to the simplified pulse-like and broadband ground motions are compared against each other. The results show that the simplified pulse model that describes the coherent seismic radiation is able to represent the main features of the near-fault ground motions that cause large torsional response. The maximum relative twist at resonance is found to be ~10−3rad, a value that is consistent with the upper bound of rotations in structures reported in the literature.

A case study on the seismic performance of earth dams

The seismic non-linear behaviour of earth dams is investigated by using a well-documented case study and employing advanced static and dynamic coupled-consolidation finite-element analysis. The static part of the analysis considers the layered construction, reservoir impoundment and consolidation, whereas the dynamic part considers the response of the dam to two earthquakes of different magnitude, duration and frequency content. The results of the analysis are compared with the recorded response of the dam and exhibit a generally good agreement. The effects of the narrow canyon geometry, the reservoir impoundment and the elasto-plastic soil behaviour on the seismic dam behaviour are investigated. Finally the implications of the adopted constitutive modelling assumptions on the predicted response are discussed.