Earthquake Of April Research Articles

Reconstruction of groundwater level at Kumamoto, Japan by means of deep learning to evaluate its increase by the 2016 earthquake

Groundwater is a very important water resource at Kumamoto City. Kumamoto City is the capital city of Kumamoto Prefecture, which is located in the Kyushu region, Japan. All domestic water is obtained from groundwater in Kumamoto City. Modeling groundwater is a difficult issue. Conditions under the ground are complex, and difficult to be obtained. Even the delineation of a groundwater basin is frequently unknown. Nowadays, deep learning is a hot topic in many research fields including geoscience. A recurrent neural network (RNN) is a type of deep learning that is suitable for time series modeling. Then, it has been successfully applied for groundwater modeling. Therefore, this study utilized a new type of RNN, Long and Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network, to model groundwater level at a monitoring well within Kumamoto City. The results in this study showed good agreement with the observed groundwater. In addition, it is known that severe earthquakes in April 2016 affected the groundwater level around Kumamoto City. The groundwater level model by LSTM was also utilized to estimate the effects of the severe earthquakes on the groundwater level. The results indicated that the earthquakes may have increased the groundwater level at Kumamoto City by more than 3 m.

Shaking in the Southeastern United States: Examining Earthquakes and Blasts in the Central Georgia–South Carolina Seismic Region

AbstractSeismicity in the southeastern United States is relatively poorly characterized and thus not well understood. Structures and heterogeneities from multiple stages of Appalachian orogenesis, continental rifting, and magmatism as well as rivers and reservoirs may be influencing seismic activity in the region, but previous constraints are limited. The addition of seismic stations from the U.S. Transportable Array and the Southeastern Suture of the Appalachian Margin Experiment Array in 2012–2014 provide an opportunity to characterize seismicity in the central Georgia–South Carolina region. We develop a seismic catalog of >1000 events from March 2012 to May 2014 within or near the instrument array boundaries 30.1°–35.2°N, 80.9°– 85.7°W. Many of the events detected were industrial blasts, so multiple strategies were tested to discriminate between earthquakes and blasts based on event locations, timing, and spectral amplitude of the P and S arrivals. Based on this analysis, ∼10% of the events in the catalog were classified as earthquakes. Most earthquakes southeast of the eastern Tennessee seismic zone are located in the Carolina terrane, particularly where the Carolina terrane intersects major rivers or reservoirs. One prominent region of seismicity along the Savannah River near Thurmond Lake corresponds with an ∼4.5 m rise in water levels in 2013. A temporal cluster of earthquakes in April 2013 was followed by increased levels of ambient seismicity preceding the nearby Mw 4.1 earthquake in 2014. Focal mechanisms based on first-motion polarities indicate strike-slip to oblique-thrust motion on structures trending approximately north–south or east–west, and a maximum horizontal stress orientation consistent with the regional trend of ∼N60°E, implying that seismicity may reactivate more optimally oriented structures in the Carolina terrane that are oblique to the trend of the Appalachians. Seismicity in central Georgia appears to be controlled by a complex interaction between preexisting crustal structure and hydrologic variability.

Construction technology of multi-tiered temples and their rehabilitation after 2015 April Earthquake in Bhaktapur

Kathmandu Valley comprises numerous tiered temples ranging from single to multi-tiered. A 7.6 magnitude earthquake struck Nepal on 25th April 2015, with the epicenter in the Gorkha district at 80 km northwest of Kathmandu and south of the China border. The 2015 Gorkha earthquake and the following aftershocks caused damages to many temples; the damages ranging from minor to few fully collapsed state. This paper focuses on Nepal's tallest temple the Nyatapola, square-shaped in the plan, and the Bhairavnath temple, rectangular-shape in the plan-representing the tiered temples with more than three tiers of the Kathmandu Valley. The paper investigates the employed indigenous construction technology, the condition/ level of damage suffered by case studies during the 2015 earthquake; presents the ongoing rehabilitation/strengthening works introduced following the recommendations of structural, architectural, and conservation experts. The main objectives are to explore indigenous construction technology, evaluate damage scenarios in case studies, and plan rehabilitation approaches aftermath 2015 earthquake. Methodology in the research includes the literature reviews on the construction technology of multi-tiered temples, case studies on presentative cases and the rehabilitation process adopted, key findings for damages, conclude, and provide recommendations. The rehabilitation process consisted of workshops and meetings with related authorities and the formation of a technical committee as per the recommendations of the experts. The team prepares a condition assessment report based upon visual inspections, documentations through on-site measurements, photographs, records of changes, and alterations. Based on condition assessment, the reasons for the damages are analyzed and appropriate rehabilitation/strengthening methods are recommended. The key findings consist of common construction technology of locally available materials like timber, mud, bricks, and stone with reducing wall thickness, and roof towards the top. The geometrical configuration, the inconsistent relative motion of the wall and roof during the earthquake; insufficient joint keys, and lack of regular monitoring maintenance are responsible for the level of damages in the temples.

Earthquake Impact, Coping Mechanism, and the Community Discourses: Experiences from the Central Hills of Nepal

Introduction: Nepal is vulnerable to many hazards and disasters. Geographically, Nepal is situated at the Indi-an and Eurasian seismic plates and is prone to disasters like floods, landslides, fire, and earthquakes. The earthquake of April 25, 2015, with a 7.8 Richter scale and several aftershocks, have resulted in a considerable loss of human lives, physical infrastructure, and natural resources in Nepal. Many studies on the impacts of the earthquake mentioned the challenges in community recovery. This paper examines and explains the impact of earthquakes on family and community, how family and community cope during the disaster. Besides coping mechanisms, this paper explains discourses or conflicts in the family and communities. The paper is an outcome of a statistical analysis of 912 households' survey conducted in Nepal's central hill, Kispang Rural municipality, a community affected by the 2015 earthquake in Nuwakot district. Methods: This research relies on literature review, key informant interviews, Focus Group Discussions (FGD), field visits, expert interviews, etic and emic approaches to observe from the field. The research questionnaires were prepared and performed a household survey of 912 households. Various questions on how the earthquake in Nepal "X" has created the "Y" impacts and discourses or conflict in the family and the community in Nepal's central hills were analyzed. Results: The earthquake has impacted the families and communities; however, the families and communities had shown distinct coping mechanisms to stay resilient to the impact—various factors were identified where family discourses and conflict escalated, which has impacted the community peace. Family level discourses and conflict emerged mainly in collectivist society or joint or extended families. Gender-based violence/ conflict is also measured and found augmented after the earthquake in the community. Conclusion: The research study concluded that family discourses and conflict emerged when disaster relief and reconstruction policies do not incorporate the affected communities' needs. The multi-dimensional holistic, integrated policies that integrate all the affected communities' needs will support building community and family-level peace. Discriminative policies that divide families and communities should not be practiced.

Satellite radar interferometry for assessing coseismic liquefaction in Portoviejo city, induced by the Mw 7.8 2016 Pedernales, Ecuador earthquake

The Portoviejo city, located in the central part of the Ecuadorian Pacific Coast (province of Manabi), was severely affected during the Pedernales Mw 7.8 earthquake of April 16, 2016, accompanied by coseismic liquefaction phenomena that induced processes of ground subsidence, lateral spreading, sinkhole, and sand boils. The present study proposes the detection and delimitation of the areas affected by the relief deformation, associated liquefaction processes, which occurred in the urban area of Portoviejo city and especially in the Zero Zone of greater destruction after the earthquake, through the application of Differential Interferometry Synthetic Aperture Radar (INSAR) methodology, using Sentinel 1A satellite images, plus the support of geological–geotechnical data obtained from boreholes and standard penetration tests to evaluate the liquefaction potential of the layers of the subsoil based on the Potential Liquefaction Index, considering the seismic scenario of amax 0.5 g for the urban area and the Zero Zone. This procedure allowed the delimitation of areas of high seismic risk for the proper coordination and management of the construction and reconstruction processes in the city of Portoviejo and specifically in the Ground Zero.

MINING SEISMIC THERMAL ANOMALIES FROM MASSIVE SATELLITE PASSIVE MICROWAVE IMAGES

Abstract. Satellite passive microwave radiative signals are considered to reflect thermal radiation and energy exchange of the Earth’s surface, and the microwave brightness temperature (MBT) has been preliminary adopted for pre-earthquake thermal anomaly monitoring in recent decades. Based on the spatio-temporally weighted two-step method (STW-TSM), this paper aims to uncover the evolution characteristics of MBT anomaly prior to typical earthquakes (EQs), i.e. the Mw7.9 Wenchuan EQ in May 2008, the Nepal EQs in April and May 2015, and the Mw5.8 Yibin EQ in June 2019, and to explore and recognize their differences and commonalities. The results are summarized as: 1) significant MBT positive anomalies appeared east and southwest close to the epicenter before the Wenchuan EQ, and the east anomaly migrated northeastward along Longmenshan faults with aftershocks, then the two anomalies dissipated subsequently with the ceasing of large aftershocks (Mw > 5.5). 2) the MBT positive anomalies of Nepal EQs firstly appeared along the Himalayas and became most obvious 1 day before the main shock, and dissipated subsequently after the first shock, and that of the second shock behaved in the same spatiotemporal patten. 3) regional positive MBT anomalies appeared around the epicenter a half month before the Yibin EQ and diminished over time, and the most obvious abnormal area transferred from the central and northwest to the southwest study area. It exhibited that MBT positive anomalies prefer to appear at the mechanically relaxed zones, such as the loose Quaternary with Wenchuan EQ, the cliff peaks with Nepal EQs, and the mountains surrounding Yibin EQ’s epicenter, which can be attributed to the declining of ground surface microwave dielectric caused by stress activated P-holes during the period of seismogenic preparation. This research provides a novel insight into mining MBT anomalies associate with large earthquakes and a possibility to explore the potential mechanism of such abnormal phenomena.

Liquefaction source layer for sand blows induced by the 2016 megathrust earthquake (Mw 7.8) in Ecuador (Boca de Briceño)

Numerous sand boils were generated in the alluvial plain at the mouth of the Rio Briceño valley (Ecuador) during the Mw 7.8 earthquake of April 2016. The area is characterized by a series of raised marine terraces formed as a consequence of the rapid tectonic coastal uplift during the Quaternary. Boreholes and geotechnical investigations were carried during post-earthquake surveys and for the purpose of mitigating the liquefaction effects. Five lithological units were identified at a site of embankment, which represented continental-marine and transitional sedimentation since the Last Glacial Maximum. A comprehensive study of texture and petrographic composition of sand boils has been performed and compared with sandy silts and silty sands of the buried sedimentary sequence in order to identify the source levels for liquefaction. The petrographic components, in particular the low content of bioclasts and carbonate fragments of the sand boils, allow to pinpoint a source layer made up of fine-grained silty sands located between 2 and 4.5 m depth (Unit 2) whereas the deeper marine sands, richer in bioclasts, were not involved. The results support the idea that earthquake-induced liquefaction phenomena are not restricted to clean sands and well-sorted deposits, but may affect sand layers with significant amount of non-plastic silt.

Post-earthquake hospital functionality evaluation: The case of Kumamoto Earthquake 2016

The Japanese Prefecture of Kumamoto experienced a series of strong earthquakes in April 2016 causing widespread damage and had a serious impact on local communities. The events caused over 3000 casualties and affected the continuity of healthcare services. Many hospitals had to be evacuated but the reasons for this evacuation are not clear. This research aims to investigate the impact of damage on the performance of the healthcare service through a survey of 118 healthcare facilities. The study connects earthquake metrics and the loss of healthcare service functionality and reveals the reasons for which facilities were totally or partially evacuated. Findings suggest that the reasons are mainly damage to buildings, critical systems, and medical equipment. It concludes by estimating that the stricken areas lost approximately 15% of their healthcare functionality. The study also concludes that the current building standards increased the performance of hospital buildings by approximately 10%; however, more attention is needed to protect architectural and critical systems.

Joint inversion of GPS and high-resolution GRACE gravity data for the 2012 Wharton basin earthquakes

The Wharton basin is situated in the north-eastern part of the Indian Ocean. In 2012 it hosted the largest intraplate strike-slip earthquakes ever recorded by geophysical networks. The Mw 8.6 earthquake of April 11, 2012, was preceded by a major foreshock (Mw 7.2) on January 10 and was followed two hours afterward by a Mw 8.2 event. These three large events occurred at the diffuse boundary between the Indian and Australian plates and were almost pure strike-slips on sub-vertical rupture surfaces. Using GRACE data, we first extracted the coseismic and postseismic gravity signals caused by these earthquakes. Then we fitted both GPS and the highest available spatial resolution of GRACE data using the geometry of the fault system suggested by Hill et al. (2015). We propose a regularization, which allows to solve for a linear problem in order to invert GPS and GRACE data under constraints on the rake angle. Our inversion yields a uniform displacement field on all elements of a given fault plane. Our solution shows that even the main displacement occurred on WNW trending faults, comparable displacement also occurred on a rupture striking NNE. Hence, we show that the deformation in this diffuse plate boundary region in 2012 was accommodated by displacements along both fault-systems.A viscoelastic relaxation of the asthenosphere with a Maxwell viscosity 1019 Pa∙s successfully explains the postseismic displacements at GPS sites and postseismic gravity signals. The limited postseismic aftershock activity suggests small postseismic slip in the area of the 2012 Wharton earthquakes contrary to what is often observed after large subduction event. Because a part of the observed signal could be related to afterslip, our obtained Maxwell viscosity value should be considered as a lower limit of the asthenospheric viscosity below the Wharton basin.

Atmospheric Phase Compensation in Extreme Weather Conditions for Ground-Based SAR

Herein, a semiempirical model is proposed to remove the atmospheric phase screen (APS) that occurs during ground-based synthetic aperture radar (GB-SAR) monitoring in steep mountainous areas with extreme weather conditions. The proposed method is based on a model-based statistical technique, which combines the topographical information and the estimated phase of interferograms. A 3-D geographical model was designed to investigate the effect of topographical irregularities, such as elevation, slope, and their correlation with the APS. The observed phases were then modeled according to the altitude and range of the 3-D topographical structure seen by the radar. A two-stage semiempirical algorithm is proposed to compensate for the APS in the spatial domain. Herein, the temporal changes in meteorological parameters, such as the atmospheric temperature, pressure, or humidity, were not considered for phase correction, drastically reducing the model background information and providing faster data processing for real-time GB-SAR monitoring. The proposed model was applied to the mountainous environment of a road reconstruction site in Minami-Aso, Kumamoto, Japan, where large-scale landslides were triggered after the Kumamoto earthquake in April 2016.

Историческая топография Хансарая: к вопросу периодизации формирования

This work is about a study of ancient earthquake that significantly damaged the Khan’s Palace in Bakhchysarai at the end of the 1600’s. Today, however, it is almost impossible to find evidences of this catastrophic event in walls of the Hansaray. Our research shows that this may be explained by the large numbers of repairs and restorations that are constantly carried out on the monument. Only due to the fact that one object of the Khan’s Palace (“eastern building”) was raided in the 2013, we can fix the internal structure of its walls and find evidences of seismogenic deformation of the plinth arch with repair. We carried out a search for analogies to date this ancient seismic event. Similar damages were found in walls of the Eski-Durbe, monuments of the first palace of Crimean khans in Salachik (Zangirli madrassah and durbe of Haji-Geray) and the Great Kenassa from Chufut-Kale. The comparison of the chronology and characteristics of seismic deformations of “eastern structure” and other monuments gave the possibility to associate their damages with the “Salachik” earthquake of April 30, 1698, with seismic rupture located along the West-Crimean seismogenic zone and local intensity near Bakhchysarai Il = VIII–IX points (MSK-64). The magnitude of the event is not yet clear and can be estimated with more data. However, it is obvious, that the “Salachik” earthquake should be considered not only from the point of the seismotectonics and long-term seismic forecast for the Crimea, but also as major event of building periodization of the Hansaray. Our studies showed that this earthquake with high degree of probability had destroyed the Sahib Geray Divan Hall and had forced to make a significant rebuilding of the Khan’s Palace, which was unknown before our studies. These rebuilding significantly changed the monument and began the formation of late topography of the Hansaray, which has remained almost unchanged until now. Ancient part of the palace and Sahib Geray’s buildings sustained significant damage during the “Salachik” earthquake. From those buildings the history of construction of the palace complex, and also the city of Bakhchysarai, has began.

Satisfaction of Patients from the Quality Service of Diagnosis of Health Problem in Public Health Institutions of Nepal

Health should be the first priority of each people; people can do creative work if s/he is healthy. According to the annual report of the Department of Health Services (DoHS) for fiscal year 2072/73 (2015/2016), the main institutions that delivered basic health services were 104 public hospitals, 303 private hospitals, 202 primary health care centres (PHCCs) and 3,803 health posts. The primary health care services also provided 12,660 primary health care outreach clinic (PHCORC) sites. The health service was affected from the earthquake of April 2015 so the study aims to identify the satisfaction of patient from quality of diagnosis of health problem in public health institutions after earthquake. The study had covered 82 health institutions (45 from Kavre and 37 from Sindhupalchowak district). The statistical result of t-test shows that there was significant difference in approach of doctors (p = .012), and counselling of doctors (p=.043) but there was no difference in answering the queries promptly (p=.187), and explanation given for aliment (p = .180). The descriptive data show slight increase in level of satisfaction of patient after earthquake. Still health posts established in rural setting have inadequate human resource basically doctors are not adequate so Government should provide the trained Doctor in rural areas to increase the access of rural people in health services.

TEPT y Ansiedad en niños y adolescentes 2 años posterior al terremoto de 2016 en Unidades Educativas de la ciudad de Portoviejo, Ecuador

El trastorno de estrés postraumático (TEPT) es una de las consecuencias de la exposición a desastres naturales más frecuente e incapacitante en niños, quienes representan la población más vulnerable para desarrollarlo, por lo que el médico pediatra debe estar preparado para identificar los rasgos y características de estos trastornos y poder realizar un diagnóstico oportuno. Objetivo: determinar la presencia de TEPT y ansiedad en los niños y adolescentes que presenciaron el terremoto de abril del 2016 en la Provincia de Manabí, en las unidades educativas Antonio Meléndez, María de la Merced y Francisco Pacheco. Metodología: estudio observacional, transversal, retrospectivo, descriptivo, analítico, con 271 niños de 9 -14 años. Encuestas: factores sociodemográficos y económicos, Escala Infantil de Síntomas de Trastorno de Estrés Postraumático (CPSS), la Escala de Ansiedad de Spence; datos fueron procesados con SPSS V22. Los estadísticos OR y Chi cuadrado, IC 95% y p menor a 0.05. Resultados: TEPT se presentó en 18,1% y el Trastorno de Ansiedad en 23,1%, mayor en el sexo femenino para ambos trastornos, el trastorno de ansiedad presentó una diferencia significativa en los escolares respecto a los adolescentes, la probabilidad de presentar comorbilidad entre ambos trastornos fue elevada. Conclusiones: el TEPT está presente en niños de la zona a dos años del terremoto del 2016, el sexo femenino y los niños de menor edad presentan mayor riesgo.

Impact on built and natural environment of the strong earthquakes of April 23, 1933, and July 20, 2017, in the southeast Aegean Sea, eastern Mediterranean

The southeastern Aegean Sea is one of the most active areas in eastern Mediterranean. On July 20, 2017, the area was inflicted by a strong earthquake (Mw6.6) causing damage mainly in Kos Isl., Greece. Kos was also struck by a lethal earthquake (~ Mw6.5) on April 23, 1933, the impact of which, however, remains little known. For better understanding the seismic hazard and risk in the area we assessed the impact on the built and natural environment caused by the two earthquakes. As regards the 1933 event we collected and evaluated documentary sources unknown so far in the seismological literature. The impact of the 2017 earthquake was evaluated from observational data collected during post-event field surveys in Kos Isl. We found that the 1933 seismic intensities assigned to various localities of Kos Isl. in MM and EMS-98 scales are systematically higher with respect to the intensities due to the 2017 earthquake. This result resembles the different levels of mortality caused by the two events: death toll of 181 in 1933 against 2 in 2017. These differences are likely interpreted by the higher physical vulnerability of buildings in 1933 with respect to 2017. However, the possible role of different location, source parameters and faulting processes between the two events should not be ruled out. The influence of such factors may possibly explain that the 2017 earthquake caused important environmental effects (soil liquefaction, tsunami) contrary to the 1933 earthquake which caused only minor ground failures while at all evidence did not triggered tsunami wave.

Traumatic Orbital Compartment Syndrome: A Sight Threatening Emergency.

Orbital compartment syndrome is a rare presentation of orbital trauma and is an ophthalmic emergency. Delay in clinical diagnosis and subsequent surgical intervention will lead to loss of vision in nick of time. We presented a case series of orbital compartment syndrome secondary to trauma who presented to the emergency department of Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital during the devastating earthquake in April 2015. Clinical diagnosis of orbital compartment syndrome was made in the bedside and all the patients underwent emergency lateral canthotomy and inferior cantholysis. This case series was aimed to describe clinical features and management of orbital compartment syndrome.

Differential interferometry, structural lineaments and terrain deformation analysis applied in Zero Zone 2016 Earthquake (Manta, Ecuador)

The earthquake of April 16, 2016 caused huge economic losses and human lives in Ground Zero of the city of Manta, Ecuador. The present study delimited the affected areas by superficial deformation and vertical displacements of the relief in this zone by means of the differential interferometry analysis (DInSAR), with the support of geophysical techniques such as electrical tomography of the subsoil and of georadar in combination with the analysis of concentration of structural lineaments-tectonic deformation, seismicity and geotechnical parameters such as soil liquefaction indexes, cutting wave velocity Vs30, among others. This combination of techniques allowed the spatial location with greater certainty of areas susceptible to seismic risk for construction and related to the soils typology of the Ecuadorian Construction Standard-NEC 2015. This proposed methodology improved forecasting mechanisms for the reduction of seismic risk based on maps of its susceptibility to the possible occurrence of an earthquake of magnitude as that of 16 April 16, 2016. Forecast that can be done to protect engineering works and to the population, especially in tectonically deformed areas.

Abnormal disappearance of Duoqing Co lake between November 2015 and April 2016, due to far-field aseismic creeping of the southern Yadong-Gulu rift of Tibet, triggered by the 2015 Ms 8.1 Nepal earthquake

ABSTRACT Duoqing Co is a 60 km2 outflow lake in the N-trending Pagri graben, located at the southern end of the Yadong-Gulu rift in Tibet. The water in this lake suddenly disappeared between November 2015 and April 2016, closely following the Ms 8.1 (Mw 7.8) Nepal earthquake in April 2015. Both, geomorphological and remote sensing data indicate the existence of blind faults striking NNE along the east boundary of Duoqing Co lake. There were also several nearly NE-trending extensional cracks preserved in the dried lakebed, apparently formed in response to creeping deformation of the underlying rock. Based on field studies and analysis of meteorological and remote sensing data, it is suggested that this phenomenon cannot be explained by evaporation linked to climate change nor can it be related to human activity. Instead, it is considered that the lake water drained through the extensional cracks formed in the lakebed as it responded to the far-field effects of the 2015 Nepal earthquake. It is proposed that a shift in regional tectonics occurred as a result of the Nepal earthquake, causing a sharp increase in stress accumulation along the seismically locked Bhutan–Sikkim zone on the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT) fault, which was accommodated by the extension of the Pagri graben in the southern Yadong-Gulu rift. It is believed that the crust may have reached a critical stress-state that resulted in strain hardening and brittle failure throughout the region along the Bhutan–Sikkim segment of the MHT. If so, considering the high potential for tectonic activity along the segment of the MHT, it may be worth paying attention to deformational changes and potential geomorphological precursors that might appear in the seismically locked Bhutan–Sikkim gap to predict future earthquakes.

Earthquake Exposure and Post-traumatic Stress Among Nepalese Mothers After the 2015 Earthquakes.

Introduction: Nepal suffered from major earthquakes in April 2015 resulting in great damage to the society. The objective of the current study is to describe the earthquake exposure, the impact on family’s daily life and the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and their association in Nepalese mothers 20 months following the earthquakes.Methods: In a clinical trial in Bhaktapur, Nepal, 558 mothers responded to an inventory on earthquake exposure and the Impact of Event Scale – Revised (IES-R) 20 months after the earthquakes. In multiple linear regression models, we estimated the associations between the earthquake exposure and the impact on the families’ life and the IES-R score.Results: Over 60% reported that the earthquakes had a great deal of negative impact on their family’s life. In 4.7%, close family members died, and in 10.5%, family members were injured. 24% had IES-R scores indicating PTSD symptoms within clinical concern or a possible diagnosis. Lower levels of education were associated with higher scores on the total IES-R. Mothers who report that the earthquakes had a great deal of negative impact had higher total IES-R scores [9.8, 95% CI (5.9, 13.6)] compared to mothers that reported no such negative impact. Mothers with family members who were killed had higher IES-R scores [3.6, 95% CI (1.6, 5.5)] than those with no family members who died. Mothers assisting in rescue efforts had lower IES-R scores [2.8, 95% CI (0.8, 4.8)] than those not assisting.Conclusion: Our study demonstrates high levels of exposure to traumatic events, large negative impact on the everyday life of the families, and a high level of PTSD symptoms. There was a consistent and graded association between the exposure variables and PTSD symptoms. The large impact of the earthquakes on these Nepalese mothers underscore the importance of awareness of mental disorders following major natural catastrophes for marginalized families.

Nepal: The Different Interpretations of Crime

Nepal has developed a lot in the past few decades though the definition on development is subjective. A few years back Nepal was under a monarchy and everything was thought to be running smoothly until June 1, 2001. The day of June 1 has been marked a dark day in Nepalese history as it is the date of the Nepalese Royal Massacre. This led to a chain of events occurring and eventually in 2005 the country of Nepal became the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal. Though democracy was established in Nepal a decade ago, the Constitution has finally entered into its final phase this year. The decade has been marked with a lot of political turmoil as there have been numerous changes in the formation of Governments and riots due to their manifestos not being for the benefit to the entire populace. The country has seen different types of protests from boycotts to demonstrations to hunger strikes. But the main form of protest that has been seen is “bandhs”. Bandhs are general strikes and it is a powerful means of civil disobedience. During bandhs everything is closed down and only official cars such as police cars and ambulances are seen on the streets. Schools, offices, shops, restaurants, etc. remain shut. Bandhs are meant to be a peaceful form of protest but it does not take time for the strike to turn violent. The country that had been adversely affected by the recurring earthquakes in April 2015 and it now faces a political crisis which has its roots deeply invested within the sociographical divisions found in Nepal. The landlocked has been facing an “unofficial” blockade for the past 5 months from three of the four sides which are neighbored by India. This led to protests occurring in the Terai(plain) region of Nepal however, it only started catching up to the Hilly regions a month after it started in the Terai region. Each article has portrayed the news of the Nepal bandhs to bring reforms in the Constitution. Each of these articles show the stark differences that are eminent between the stances taken by each group. These articles have questioned the terms that everyone refers to as crime and hence, the paper will focus on their interpretation of crime. This has become necessary as every political party has been resorting to violence and by justifying such violence in the name of Nepal bandhs they have considered the defiance of following such Nepal bandhs a crime. The public have started to look at such acts in a different perspective and consider the political parties’ acts crimes. The struggle for democracy is only seen as a struggle for institutional power but also as a quest to frame certain grievances as legitimate, then it is pertinent to answer the question of what the definition of a crime really is.

Assessment of local adaptive capacities in the context of local politics after the 2016 Ecuadorian earthquake

Focusing on four municipalities in two provinces (Manabí and Esmeraldas), this article discusses the comparative findings resulting from the first long-term assessment of the decelerated socioeconomic recovery process on the Ecuadorian coast after the earthquake of April 2016. To do so, we draw on the framework of collective adaptive capacities developed by Ross (2014), repeated field stays between 2017 and 2018, and aerial photographic documentation. By putting emphasis on both the national context of post-neoliberal Buen Vivir disaster management as well as the subtleties and vital role of local politics in the recovery process, we find serious ecological, institutional, infrastructural and economic shortcomings at the municipal level. By typically fostering disaster capitalism and securitization in favor of cantonal seats, and to the detriment of parishes, the recovery process revealed a tendency to deepen already existing vulnerabilities and inequalities in the region instead of mitigating them.