Earth System Functioning Research Articles

Groundwaterscapes: A Global Classification and Mapping of Groundwater's Large‐Scale Socioeconomic, Ecological, and Earth System Functions

AbstractGroundwater is a dynamic component of the global water cycle with important social, economic, ecological, and Earth system functions. We present a new global classification and mapping of groundwater systems, which we call groundwaterscapes, that represent predominant configurations of large‐scale groundwater system functions. We identify and map 15 groundwaterscapes which offer a new lens to conceptualize, study, model, and manage groundwater. Groundwaterscapes are derived using a novel application of sequenced self‐organizing maps that capture patterns in groundwater system functions at the grid cell level (∼10 km), including groundwater‐dependent ecosystem type and density, storage capacity, irrigation, safe drinking water access, and national governance. All large aquifer systems of the world are characterized by multiple groundwaterscapes, highlighting the pitfalls of treating these groundwater bodies as lumped systems in global assessments. We evaluate the distribution of Global Groundwater Monitoring Network wells across groundwaterscapes and find that industrial agricultural regions are disproportionately monitored, while several groundwaterscapes have next to no monitoring wells. This disparity undermines the ability to understand system dynamics across the full range of settings that characterize groundwater systems globally. We argue that groundwaterscapes offer a conceptual and spatial tool to guide model development, hypothesis testing, and future data collection initiatives to better understand groundwater's embeddedness within social‐ecological systems at the global scale.

Land-neutral negative emissions through biochar-based fertilization—assessing global potentials under varied management and pyrolysis conditions

Climate stabilization is crucial for restabilizing the Earth system but should not undermine biosphere integrity, a second pillar of Earth system functioning. This is of particular concern if it is to be achieved through biomass-based negative emission (NE) technologies that compete for land with food production and ecosystem protection. We assess the NE contribution of land- and calorie-neutral pyrogenic carbon capture and storage (LCN-PyCCS) facilitated by biochar-based fertilization, which sequesters carbon and reduces land demand by increasing crop yields. Applying the global biosphere model LPJmL with an enhanced representation of fast-growing species for PyCCS feedstock production, we calculated a land-neutral global NE potential of 0.20–1.10 GtCO2 year−1 assuming 74% of the biochar carbon remaining in the soil after 100 years (for + 10% yield increase; no potential for + 5%; 0.61–1.88 GtCO2 year−1 for + 15%). The potential is primarily driven by the achievable yield increase and the management intensity of the biomass producing systems. NE production is estimated to be enhanced by + 200–270% if management intensity increases from a marginal to a moderate level. Furthermore, our results show sensitivity to process-specific biochar yields and carbon contents, producing a difference of + 40–75% between conservative assumptions and an optimized setting. Despite these challenges for making world-wide assumptions on LCN-PyCCS systems in modeling, our findings point to discrepancies between the large NE volumes calculated in demand-driven and economically optimized mitigation scenarios and the potentials from analyses focusing on supply-driven approaches that meet environmental and socioeconomic preconditions as delivered by LCN-PyCCS.

The planetary commons: A new paradigm for safeguarding Earth-regulating systems in the Anthropocene

The Anthropocene signifies the start of a no-analogue trajectory of the Earth system that is fundamentally different from the Holocene. This new trajectory is characterized by rising risks of triggering irreversible and unmanageable shifts in Earth system functioning. We urgently need a new global approach to safeguard critical Earth system regulating functions more effectively and comprehensively. The global commons framework is the closest example of an existing approach with the aim of governing biophysical systems on Earth upon which the world collectively depends. Derived during stable Holocene conditions, the global commons framework must now evolve in the light of new Anthropocene dynamics. This requires a fundamental shift from a focus only on governing shared resources beyond national jurisdiction, to one that secures critical functions of the Earth system irrespective of national boundaries. We propose a new framework—the planetary commons—which differs from the global commons framework by including not only globally shared geographic regions but also critical biophysical systems that regulate the resilience and state, and therefore livability, on Earth. The new planetary commons should articulate and create comprehensive stewardship obligations through Earth system governance aimed at restoring and strengthening planetary resilience and justice.

Change in observed long-term greening across Switzerland – evidence from a three decades NDVI time-series and its relationship with climate and land cover factors

ABSTRACT Environmental changes are significantly modifying terrestrial vegetation dynamics, with serious consequences on Earth system functioning and provision of ecosystem services. Land conditions are an essential element underpinning global sustainability frameworks, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), requiring effective solutions to assess the impacts of changing land conditions induced by various driving forces. At the global scale, long-term increase of vegetation greening has been widely reported notably in seasonally snow-covered ecosystems as a response to warming climate. However, greening trends at the national scale have received less attention, although countries like Switzerland are prone to important changing climate conditions. Hereby, we used a 35-year satellite-derived annual and seasonal time-series of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) to assess vegetation greenness evolution at different spatial and temporal scales across Switzerland and related them to temperature, precipitation, and land cover to investigate possible responses of changing climatic conditions. Results indicate that there is a statistically significant greening trend at the national scale with an NDVI mean increasing slope of 0.6%/year for the 61% significant pixels across Switzerland. In particular, the seasonal mean NDVI shows an important break for winter, autumn and spring seasons starting from 2010, potentially indicating a critical point of changing land conditions. At biogeographical scale, we observed an apparent clustering (Jura-Plateau; Northern-Southern Alps; Eastern-Western Alps) related to landscape characteristics, while forested land cover classes are more responsive to NDVI changes. Finally, the NDVI values are mostly a function of temperature at elevations below the tree line rather than precipitation. The findings suggest that multi-annual and seasonal NDVI can be a valuable indicator to monitor vegetation conditions at different scales and can provide complementary observations for national statistics on the ecological state of vegetation to monitor land affected by changing environmental conditions. This work is aiming at strengthening the insights into the driving factors of vegetation change and supporting monitoring changing land conditions to provide guidance for effective and efficient environmental management and sustainable development policy advice at the national scale.

Simplification of soil biota communities impairs nutrient recycling and enhances above- and belowground nitrogen losses.

Agriculture is a major source of nutrient pollution, posing a threat to the earth system functioning. Factors determining the nutrient use efficiency of plant-soil systems need to be identified to develop strategies to reduce nutrient losses while ensuring crop productivity. The potential of soil biota to tighten nutrient cycles by improving plant nutrition and reducing soil nutrient losses is still poorly understood. We manipulated soil biota communities in outdoor lysimeters, planted maize, continuously collected leachates, and measured N2 O- and N2 -gas emissions after a fertilization pulse to test whether differences in soil biota communities affected nutrient recycling and N losses. Lysimeters with strongly simplified soil biota communities showed reduced crop N (-20%) and P (-58%) uptake, strongly increased N leaching losses (+65%), and gaseous emissions (+97%) of N2 O and N2 . Soil metagenomic analyses revealed differences in the abundance of genes responsible for nutrient uptake, nitrate reduction, and denitrification that helped explain the observed nutrient losses. Soil biota are major drivers of nutrient cycling and reductions in the diversity or abundance of certain groups (e.g. through land-use intensification) can disrupt nutrient cycling, reduce agricultural productivity and nutrient use efficiency, and exacerbate environmental pollution and global warming.

Groundwater connections and sustainability in social-ecological systems.

Groundwater resources are connected with social, economic, ecological, and Earth systems. We introduce the framing of groundwater-connected systems to better represent the nature and complexity of these connections in data collection, scientific investigations, governance and management approaches, and groundwater education. Groundwater-connected systems are social, economic, ecological, and Earth systems that interact with groundwater, such as irrigated agriculture, groundwater-dependent ecosystems, and cultural relationships to groundwater expressions such as springs and rivers. Groundwater-connected systems form social-ecological systems with complex behaviours such as feedbacks, non-linear processes, multiple stable system states, and path dependency. These complex behaviours are only visible through this integrated system framing and are not endogenous properties of physical groundwater systems. The framing is syncretic as it aims to provide a common conceptual foundation for the growing disciplines of socio-hydrogeology, eco-hydrogeology, groundwater governance, and hydro-social groundwater analysis. The framing also facilitates greater alignment between the groundwater sustainability discourse and emerging sustainability concepts and principles. Aligning with these concepts and principles presents groundwater sustainability as more than a physical state to be reached; and argues that place-based and multi-faceted goals, values, justice, knowledge systems, governance and management must continually be integrated to maintain groundwater's social, ecological, and Earth system functions. The groundwater-connected system framing can underpin a broad, methodologically pluralistic, and community-driven new wave of data collection and analysis, research, governance, management, and education. These developments, together, can invigorate efforts to foster sustainable groundwater futures in the complex systems groundwater is embedded within. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

What is a biocrust? A refined, contemporary definition for a broadening research community.

ABSTRACTStudies of biological soil crusts (biocrusts) have proliferated over the last few decades. The biocrust literature has broadened, with more studies assessing and describing the function of a variety of biocrust communities in a broad range of biomes and habitats and across a large spectrum of disciplines, and also by the incorporation of biocrusts into global perspectives and biogeochemical models. As the number of biocrust researchers increases, along with the scope of soil communities defined as ‘biocrust’, it is worth asking whether we all share a clear, universal, and fully articulated definition of what constitutes a biocrust. In this review, we synthesize the literature with the views of new and experienced biocrust researchers, to provide a refined and fully elaborated definition of biocrusts. In doing so, we illustrate the ecological relevance and ecosystem services provided by them. We demonstrate that biocrusts are defined by four distinct elements: physical structure, functional characteristics, habitat, and taxonomic composition. We describe outgroups, which have some, but not all, of the characteristics necessary to be fully consistent with our definition and thus would not be considered biocrusts. We also summarize the wide variety of different types of communities that fall under our definition of biocrusts, in the process of highlighting their global distribution. Finally, we suggest the universal use of the Belnap, Büdel & Lange definition, with minor modifications: Biological soil crusts (biocrusts) result from an intimate association between soil particles and differing proportions of photoautotrophic (e.g. cyanobacteria, algae, lichens, bryophytes) and heterotrophic (e.g. bacteria, fungi, archaea) organisms, which live within, or immediately on top of, the uppermost millimetres of soil. Soil particles are aggregated through the presence and activity of these often extremotolerant biota that desiccate regularly, and the resultant living crust covers the surface of the ground as a coherent layer. With this detailed definition of biocrusts, illustrating their ecological functions and widespread distribution, we hope to stimulate interest in biocrust research and inform various stakeholders (e.g. land managers, land users) on their overall importance to ecosystem and Earth system functioning.

A planetary boundary for green water

Green water — terrestrial precipitation, evaporation and soil moisture — is fundamental to Earth system dynamics and is now extensively perturbed by human pressures at continental to planetary scales. However, green water lacks explicit consideration in the existing planetary boundaries framework that demarcates a global safe operating space for humanity. In this Perspective, we propose a green water planetary boundary and estimate its current status. The green water planetary boundary can be represented by the percentage of ice-free land area on which root-zone soil moisture deviates from Holocene variability for any month of the year. Provisional estimates of departures from Holocene-like conditions, alongside evidence of widespread deterioration in Earth system functioning, indicate that the green water planetary boundary is already transgressed. Moving forward, research needs to address and account for the role of root-zone soil moisture for Earth system resilience in view of ecohydrological, hydroclimatic and sociohydrological interactions.

Going Back to the Roots

Given growing human influence on the earth system's functioning, caring for nature has never been this critical. However, whether for economic interests or ‘wilderness’ preservation, attempts to save nature have been grounded on a Western scientific philosophy of separating it from people's ways of living, especially through ‘protected areas'. Under the banner ‘convivial conservation', which advocates socio-ecological justice and structural transformations in the global economic system, an alternative idea called ‘promoted areas’ has been proposed, advocating for conservation which promotes nature for, to, and by humans. Here, we argue that ‘promoted areas’ are best fitted with decolonial thinking in conservation science and practice. In southern Africa, one available ‘decolonial option’ is Ubuntu philosophy, which is anchored on the ethical principle of promoting life through mutual caring and sharing between and among humans and nonhumans. Ubuntu disengages from western ways of knowing about human–environment interactions, as it is predicated on promoting the many links between humans and nonhumans. From this, we argue that instituted through Ubuntu, ‘promoted areas’ re-initiate a harmony between human beings and physical nature, as practices of individualistic, excessive extractions of nonhuman nature are discouraged, and human–nonhuman relationships based on respect, solidarity, and collaboration are celebrated.

Megaherbivore impacts on ecosystem and Earth system functioning: the current state of the science

Megaherbivores (adult body mass > 1000 kg) are suggested to disproportionately shape ecosystem and Earth system functioning. We systematically reviewed the empirical basis for this general thesis and for the more specific hypotheses that 1) megaherbivores have disproportionately larger effects on Earth system functioning than their smaller counterparts, 2) this is true for all extant megaherbivore species and 3) their effects vary along environmental gradients. We furthermore explored possible biases in our understanding of megaherbivore impacts. We found that there are too few studies to quantitatively evaluate the general thesis or any of the hypotheses for all but the African savanna elephant. Following this finding, we performed a qualitative vote counting analysis. Our synthesis of this analysis suggests that megaherbivores can elicit strong impacts on, for example, vegetation structure and biodiversity, and all the elephant species promote seed dispersal. We were, however, unable to evaluate whether these effects are disproportionate to smaller large herbivores. Although environmental conditions can mediate megaherbivore impact, few studies quantified the effect of rainfall or soil fertility on megaherbivore impacts, precluding prediction of megaherbivore effects on the Earth system, particularly under future climates. Moreover, our review highlights major taxonomic, thematic and geographic biases in our understanding of megaherbivore effects. Most of the studies focused on African savanna elephant impacts on vegetation structure and biodiversity, with other megaherbivores and Earth system functions comparatively neglected. Studies were also biased towards semi‐arid and relatively fertile systems, with the arid, high‐rainfall and/or nutrient‐poor parts of the megaherbivores' distribution ranges largely unrepresented. Our findings highlight that the empirical basis of our understanding of the ecological effects of extant megaherbivores is still limited for all species, except the African savanna elephant, and that our current understanding is biased towards certain environmental and geographic areas. We further outline a detailed, urgently needed avenue for future research.

Some reflections on human identity in the Anthropocene

This article observes that both the similar and the dissimilar are of ethical importance in discourse on human identity. There is a need for a common humanity and to guard against domination in the name of difference – precisely by recognising the otherness of the other. This also applies to reflections on what it means to be human in the age of the human, namely the Anthropocene. A survey is offered of how this tension between the similar and the dissimilar plays itself out in the work of five theorists, namely Dipesh Chakrabarty, Clive Hamilton, Dona Harraway, Michel Serres and Kathryn Yusoff. On this basis, six tentative conclusions are offered: (1) Despite the appropriate ethical emphasis on difference and otherness, the quest for the universal in the particular cannot be readily abandoned. (2) Such a sensitivity for the universal in the particular needs to be extended to a recognition of the way in which an integrated earth system functions. (3) The ethical emphasis on difference and otherness should be extended to non-human animals. (4) Human dignity and the ‘integrity of creation’ are not necessarily inversely proportioned. (5) Relations may well have an ontological priority over individuals. (6) Identity need not be constituted by the distant past or the immediate presence as if continuity over time forms a guarantee for a sense of identity.Contribution: This article explores a core question in discourse on the Anthropocene, namely ‘What does it mean to be human in the age of humans?’ It compares the views on human identity of five theorists, namely Dipesh Chakrabarty, Clive Hamilton, Dona Harraway, Michel Serres and Kathryn Yusoff and on this basis offers six observations to take the debate forward.

Predicting high‐frequency variation in stream solute concentrations with water quality sensors and machine learning

AbstractStream solute monitoring has produced many insights into ecosystem and Earth system functions. Although new sensors have provided novel information about the fine‐scale temporal variation of some stream water solutes, we lack adequate sensor technology to gain the same insights for many other solutes. We used two machine learning algorithms – Support Vector Machine and Random Forest – to predict concentrations at 15‐min resolution for 10 solutes, of which eight lack specific sensors. The algorithms were trained with data from intensive stream sensing and manual stream sampling (weekly) for four full years in a hydrologic reference stream within the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire, USA. The Random Forest algorithm was slightly better at predicting solute concentrations than the Support Vector Machine algorithm (Nash‐Sutcliffe efficiencies ranged from 0.35 to 0.78 for Random Forest compared to 0.29 to 0.79 for Support Vector Machine). Solute predictions were most sensitive to the removal of fluorescent dissolved organic matter, pH and specific conductance as independent variables for both algorithms, and least sensitive to dissolved oxygen and turbidity. The predicted concentrations of calcium and monomeric aluminium were used to estimate catchment solute yield, which changed most dramatically for aluminium because it concentrates with stream discharge. These results show great promise for using a combined approach of stream sensing and intensive stream discrete sampling to build information about the high‐frequency variation of solutes for which an appropriate sensor or proxy is not available.

The Microbial Conveyor Belt: Connecting the Globe through Dispersion and Dormancy.

Despite the recent increase in knowledge concerning microorganisms, the processes determining their global distribution and functioning have not been disentangled. Microbial dormant stages are adapted to endure specific adverse conditions related to their dispersion path, suggesting that dispersion is not entirely a stochastic process. Long-term dormancy enhances microbial dispersion, promoting the ubiquity of microorganisms. The evidence leads us to propose that there is a global, recurrent, and spatially cyclical dispersion of microorganisms that we have called the Microbial Conveyor Belt. These dispersion cycles directly influence the distribution of microorganisms, the global cycling of inorganic and organic matter, and thus the Earth system's functioning.

Constraints on Earth System Functioning at the Paleocene‐Eocene Thermal Maximum From the Marine Silicon Cycle

AbstractThe Paleocene‐Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM, ca. 56 Ma) is marked by a negative carbon isotope excursion (CIE) and increased global temperatures. The CIE is thought to result from the release of 13C‐depleted carbon, although the source(s) of carbon and triggers for its release, its rate of release, and the mechanisms by which the Earth system recovered are all debated. Many of the proposed mechanisms for the onset and recovery phases of the PETM make testable predictions about the marine silica cycle, making silicon isotope records a promising tool to address open questions about the PETM. We analyzed silicon isotope ratios (δ30Si) in radiolarian tests and sponge spicules from the Western North Atlantic (ODP Site 1051) across the PETM. Radiolarian δ30Si decreases by 0.6‰ from a background of 1‰ coeval with the CIE, while sponge δ30Si remains consistent at 0.2‰. Using a box model to test the Si cycle response to various scenarios, we find the data are best explained by a weak silicate weathering feedback, implying the recovery was mostly driven by nondiatom organic carbon burial, the other major long‐term carbon sink. We find no resolvable evidence for a volcanic trigger for carbon release, or for a change in regional oceanography. Better understanding of radiolarian Si isotope fractionation and more Si isotope records spanning the PETM are needed to confirm the global validity of these conclusions, but they highlight how the coupling between the silica and carbon cycles can be exploited to yield insight into the functioning of the Earth system.

Illuminating water cycle modifications and Earth system resilience in the Anthropocene

AbstractFresh water—the bloodstream of the biosphere—is at the center of the planetary drama of the Anthropocene. Water fluxes and stores regulate the Earth's climate and are essential for thriving aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, as well as water, food, and energy security. But the water cycle is also being modified by humans at an unprecedented scale and rate. A holistic understanding of freshwater's role for Earth system resilience and the detection and monitoring of anthropogenic water cycle modifications across scales is urgent, yet existing methods and frameworks are not well suited for this. In this paper we highlight four core Earth system functions of water (hydroclimatic regulation, hydroecological regulation, storage, and transport) and key related processes. Building on systems and resilience theory, we review the evidence of regional‐scale regime shifts and disruptions of the Earth system functions of water. We then propose a framework for detecting, monitoring, and establishing safe limits to water cycle modifications and identify four possible spatially explicit methods for their quantification. In sum, this paper presents an ambitious scientific and policy grand challenge that could substantially improve our understanding of the role of water in the Earth system and cross‐scale management of water cycle modifications that would be a complementary approach to existing water management tools.

Use of untargeted metabolomics for assessing soil quality and microbial function

Soils support a wide range of ecosystem services that underpin Earth system functioning. It is therefore essential that we have robust approaches to evaluate how anthropogenic perturbation affects soil quality and the delivery of these services. Metabolomics, the large-scale study of low molecular weight organic compounds in soil, offers one potential approach to characterise soils and evaluate the metabolic status of the soil biological community. The aims of the present study were to 1) characterise the soil metabolome across a contrasting range of soil types, 2) understand the relationships between common chemical and physical soil quality indicators and its metabolome, and 3) evaluate the discriminatory power of soil metabolomics and its potential use as a soil quality indicator. Nine different topsoils with 5 replications were collected along an altitudinal primary productivity gradient encompassing a wide range of soil types and land uses. Metabolites were extracted from soil using 3:3:2 (v/v/v) acetonitrile:isopropanol:water and individual compounds identified using a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) platform. Overall, 405 individual compounds were detected, of which 146 were positively identified, including sugars, amino acids, organic acids, nucleobases, sugar alcohols, lipids and a range of secondary metabolites. The concentration and profile of metabolites was found to vary greatly between the soil types. Further, the soils’ metabolomic fingerprints correlated to a number of environmental factors, including pH, land-use, moisture and salinity. We also tentatively attributed soil-specific metabolites to potential functional pathways, although complementary proteomic, genomic and transcriptomic approaches would be needed to provide definitive supporting evidence. In conclusion, soil metabolomics offers the potential to reveal the complex molecular networks and metabolic pathways operating in the soil microbial community and a means of evaluating soil function. Further work is now required to benchmark soil metabolomes under a wide range of management regimes so that they can be used for the quantitative assessment of soil quality.

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning to Assist Climate Change Monitoring

Climate change issues societal operation, likely wanting considerable adaptation to deal with doing well altered weather patterns. Machine learning (ML) algorithms have progressed considerably, triggering breakthroughs in some other investigation sectors, along with only lately suggested as helping climate evaluation. Though a significant volume of isolated Earth System functions are analyzed with ML techniques, much more generic phone system to find out better the whole temperature unit hasn't happened. For instance, ML is able to aid remote identification, in which complex feedbacks make characterization tough from instantaneous equation analysis or perhaps possibly visualization of sizes plus Earth System design (ESM) diagnostics. Artificial intelligence (AI) may thus build on determined climate associates to provide enhanced alerts of approaching eco-friendly functions, which includes intense events. While ESM development is actually completely necessary, a parallel concentrate on utilizing ML and AI to determine as well as capitalize a great deal more on pre pre-existing simulations as well as info is suggested by us.

How parameter specification of an Earth system model of intermediate complexity influences its climate simulations

Earth system models (ESMs) consist of parameterization schemes based on one’s perception of how the Earth system functions. A typical ESM contains a large number of parameters (i.e., the constants and exponents in the parameterization schemes) whose specification can have a significant impact on an ESM’s simulation capabilities. Sensitivity analyses (SA) is an important tool for assessing how parameter specification influences model simulations. In this study, we used an Earth system model of intermediate complexity (EMIC)—LOVECLIM as an example to illustrate how SA methods can be used to identify the most sensitive parameters that control the simulations of several key global water and energy cycle variables, including global annual mean absolute surface air temperature (TG), precipitation and evaporation over the land and over the oceans (PL, PO, EL, EO), and land runoff (RL). We also demonstrate how judiciously specifying model parameters can improve the simulations of those variables. Three SA methods MARS, RF, and sparse PCE-based Sobol’ method were used to evaluate a pool of 25 adjustable parameters chosen from land, atmosphere, and ocean components of LOVECLIM and their results were intercompared to ensure robustness of the results. It is found that with different parameter specification, TG can vary from 10 to 20 °C, and the values of PL, PO, EL, and EO can change by more than 100%. An interesting observation is that the value of RL vary from 13,000 to 35,000 km3, far below the observed climatological value of 40,000 km3, indicating a model structural deficiency in representing land runoff by LOVECLIM which must be corrected to obtain more reasonable global water budgets. We also note that parameter sensitivities are significantly different at different latitudes. Finally, we showed that global water and energy cycle simulations can be significantly improved by even a crude automatic parameter tuning, indicating that parameter optimization can be a viable way to improve ESM climate simulations. The results from this study should help us to understand the parameter uncertainty of a full-scale ESM.

The moral geography of the Earth system

Human impacts on the Earth system have profound moral consequences. The uneven generation and distribution of harms, and the acceleration of human forces now altering how the Earth system functions, also trouble moral accounts of belonging. This article shows how moral geography can be renewed in this context. It begins by identifying how human impacts on the Earth system are shifting global norms of sustainability, such as in calls to enhance planetary stewardship and to transform social values. These shifts are important in themselves, but also reveal a deeper challenge to moral geography and the counterfactual heuristics traditionally relied on to understand belonging. In response, many critical scholars have rethought the terms and conditions of belonging in the Anthropocene in reference to considerations of novelty, time, ontology, and agency. I argue that these strategies face difficulties that are not only analytical, but which also arise from new practices of belonging that accept critiques yet reach markedly different conclusions. I examine two cases of this kind. The first treats human forces as a geological sphere: the technosphere. The second incorporates the planetary boundaries framework of Earth system science as the basis for a grundnorm (a norm basic to all others) in international programmes of environmental law and governance. Examining these two practices within the broader context of shifts in sustainability reveals a new politics of naturalisation unperturbed by critical scholarship on the Anthropocene. By contrast, a renewed moral geography can identify how earlier norms of sustainable development, especially the promotion of economic instruments to secure environmental relief, now structure the incorporation of Earth system science in sustainability transitions. Retaining the structure of sustainability and accepting critiques of the Anthropocene are now giving rise to a new form of neoliberalism without nature.

Food and Earth Systems: Priorities for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation for Agriculture and Food Systems

Human activities and their relation with land, through agriculture and forestry, are significantly impacting Earth system functioning. Specifically, agriculture has increasingly become a key sector for adaptation and mitigation initiatives that address climate change and help ensure food security for a growing global population. Climate change and agricultural outcomes influence our ability to reach targets for at least seven of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. By 2015, 103 nations had committed themselves to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, while 102 countries had prioritized agriculture in their adaptation agenda. Adaptation and mitigation actions within agriculture still receive insufficient support across scales, from local to international level. This paper reviews a series of climate change adaptation and mitigation options that can support increased production, production efficiency and greater food security for 9 billion people by 2050. Climate-smart agriculture can help foster synergies between productivity, adaptation, and mitigation, although trade-offs may be equally apparent. This study highlights the importance of identifying and exploiting those synergies in the context of Nationally Determined Contributions. Finally, the paper points out that keeping global warming to 2 °C above pre-industrial levels by 2100 requires going beyond the agriculture sector and exploring possibilities with respect to reduced emissions from deforestation, food loss, and waste, as well as from rethinking human diets.