Income Earners Research Articles

Correlates of early child development among children with stunting: A cross-sectional study in Uganda.

Many children in low- and middle-income countries are not attaining their developmental potential. Stunting is associated with poor child development, but it is not known which correlates of stunting are impairing child development. We explored potential socioeconomic, nutritional, clinical, and household correlates of early child development among 12-59-month-old children with stunting in a cross-sectional study in Uganda. Development was assessed using the Malawi Development Assessment Tool (MDAT) across four domains of gross and fine motor, language, and social skills. Linear regression analysis was used to assess correlates of development in the four domains and total MDAT score. Of 750 children included, the median [interquartile range] age was 30 [23-41] months, 55% of the children resided in rural settings with 21% from female-headed households and 47% of mothers had no schooling. The mean ± standard deviation height-for-age z-score (HAZ) was -3.02 ± 0.74, 40% of the children had a positive malaria test and 65% were anaemic (haemoglobin < 110 g/L). One-third had children's books at home, majority (96%) used household objects to play with and most of them (70%) used toys as pretence items like those to mimic cooking. After age, sex, and site adjustments, HAZ (0.24, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.14-0.33) and head circumference (0.07, 95%CI: 0.02-0.12) were positive correlates of total MDAT score, whereas weight-for-height z-score (WHZ) was not. Current breastfeeding was associated with 0.41 (95%CI: 0.17-0.65) lower total MDAT score. Children from households with a single income earner had 0.22 (95%CI: 0.06-0.37) lower total MDAT score. Furthermore, severe food insecurity, inflammation and positive malaria test were associated with lower scores for motor development. All family care indicator subscales (FCIs) positively correlated with the total MDAT score and this association was independent of household's socioeconomic status. In conclusion, stunting degree, head circumference, number of household income earners and stimulation by improved FCIs correlate with early child development among stunted children. The negative association with prolonged breastfeeding is likely due to reverse causality. Identified correlates may inform initiatives to support children with stunting attain their development potential.

Death Anxiety Among Urban Middle Class: The Predictive Role of Income and Symbolic Money Attitudes

Terror management theory argues that money can function as an existential anxiety buffer. Therefore, the primary goal of this study ( N = 153) was to examine the relationship of income and symbolic money attitudes to death anxiety among middle-class individuals. In line with our predictions, results demonstrated that higher income earners experienced less death anxiety than their lower income counterparts. In addition, the more those living on low incomes regarded money as a symbol of power, the more prone to death anxiety they were. Low income and symbolic money attitudes, namely the evil and power dimensions, strongly contributed to death anxiety, with income serving as a moderator in the power dimension and death anxiety association: it was significant and positive only for those at greater risk of poverty. Personal income also seemed to play a crucial role in the connection between left–right self-placement and death anxiety, especially among male participants upon whom other people were financially dependent. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Optimal commodity taxation when households earn multiple incomes

AbstractI characterize the optimal linear commodity taxes when households differ in multiple characteristics and earn multiple incomes, in presence of an optimal non-linear tax schedule on the taxpayers’ labour incomes. The government should tax a commodity more heavily if, conditional on labour income, more deserving taxpayers consume larger quantities of that commodity. Furthermore, the government wishes to tax commodities at different rates to the extent that doing so reduces the distortions caused by the labour income tax. This is the case when households with different incomes have different consumption preferences, or when households with different labour supplies also have different consumption patterns.

Tinjauan Yuridis Influencer Dibawah Umur yang Tidak Membayar Pajak Berdasarkan Undang-Undang Nomor 36 Tahun 2008 Tentang Pajak Penghasilan

The main source of the state comes from taxes, so the government imposes tax obligations as one of the state obligations for the benefit of the state. Tax is a payable and forced payment payable under tax regulations. Income tax is a tax imposed on taxpayers on income earned in a tax year and has the economic ability received from wherever it comes from to increase wealth. The development in social media is useful for earning income, so endorsement work has emerged, namely to promote products online carried out by underage influencers. So underage influencers earn income from endorsement services, according to tax regulations are obliged to pay tax to the state on the income earned. Based on the description above, the author formulates several problems as follows: First, what is the responsibility of underage influencers to the obligation to pay taxes? Second, what are the legal consequences for underage Influencers with taxable income. The scientific effort of the research method uses normative juridical research sourced primarily from statutory, secondary, tertiary and library materials as well as research specifications with a descriptive approach of analysts to obtain answers to the problems studied. Based on the results of the study, the responsibility of underage influencers for the obligation to pay taxes under the UU PPh is the income of immature children, regardless of the source of income and whatever their work will be combined with their parents' taxes in the same tax year. Legal consequences for underage Influencers with taxable income not paying taxes tax legislation will be subject to administrative sanctions increased by 50%. Under civil law, the sanction will be transferred to the parent because it is under his supervision. For dispute resolution to taxpayers due to a tax assessment letter that is subject to administrative sanctions in the form of an increase but the taxpayer does not agree, it can resolve tax dispute resolution by submitting an objection to the Directorate General of Taxes.

PPUPIK PRODUK ABON TUNA UNTUK MENINGKATKAN PENDAPATAN DI LABORATORIUM AGROBISNIS PERIKANAN

PPUPIK is a Campus Intellectual Product Business Development Program. This program is one of the service schemes granted by Hasanuddin University for its lecturers. This scheme is the output of products or services that can generate income for the laboratory. One of the products is shredded tuna. This product is produced for sale so as to earn campus income. Where the Hasanuddin University campus is one of the Legal Entity State Universities (PTNBH). This tuna shredded product is produced in the Fisheries Agribusiness Laboratory. The short-term goal is to train students to be entrepreneurial and the long-term goal is to earn income. The method used is a demonstration of making shredded tuna, then packaged and marketed. This activity involved 4 students accompanied by 4 lecturers. The results of the demonstration from 5 kg of tuna fish are only 4.7 kg of shredded tuna. Where shrinkage as much as 300 grams. There are 2 packages of shredded production, namely plastic packaging and box packaging containing 100 grams each.

Cluster Analysis of the Positive and Negative Indicators of Complete Mental Health State Model

&lt;p&gt;本研究目的在了解正負向指標篩檢心理健康型態集群分佈情形，是否符合Keyes主張以主觀幸福感與憂鬱症狀雙指標區分的完整心理健康模式。研究設計以心理健康BMI幸福感問卷、病人健康狀況憂鬱問卷，做為正負向指標篩檢工具，架構完整心理健康模式；以問卷調查法立意取樣739份樣本，經群集分析法作統計分群。結果能區分出有意義的四群集，包括擁有高幸福低憂鬱之完整圓滿心理健康型態的「心盛型」群集（46.28%）、不完整心理健康型態三個群集:「冷靜型」（低幸福低憂鬱之不完整心理亞健康型態，31.94%）、「奮戰型」（高幸福高憂鬱之不完整心理健康型態，11.10%）、「混沌型」（低幸福高憂鬱之不完整心理健康型態，10.69%）。低憂鬱者佔全體 78.22%，其中59.17%擁有高幸福而處於完整圓滿心理健康型態；高憂鬱者佔全體21.78%，其中50.93%擁有高幸福感。驗證了幸福感、憂鬱傾向作為正負向心理健康指標，篩檢完整或不完整心理健康型態。建議:（1）高憂鬱者參照「奮戰型」這群人高幸福感來源，藉由參與社團獲得人際支持、找到工作及收入來增加自我價值感；（2）「冷靜型」不能單看低憂鬱的心理健康篩檢，需提升「友善人際支持 正念情緒平穩 認同自我價值意義」之正向心理健康BMI幸福感，以獲得完整心理健康；（3）未來研究可依據正負向心理健康指標去發展心理健康素養能力，作為心理健檢與自主管理完整心理健康之用。&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;This study aimed to understand the cluster distribution of positive and negative indicators for screening mental health patterns and whether they conform to Keyes’ claim that positive and negative indicators should be included in the complete mental health state model. The positive mental health indicators included social, emotional, and psychological well-being, which should be measured using the Mental Health Continuum Short Form (MHC-SF). Negative indicators measure the level of symptoms of mental illness concurrently, serving as a complete assessment of whether the individual is in a healthy state of positive and negative mental health indicators. Keyes employed these to distinguish four clusters of people with four mental health modes, of which the incomplete mental health cluster was in the state. Even if they have a negative mental illness, they could have positive mental health and well-being. Although some people do not have negative mental illness, they cannot have positive mental health and well-being. Therefore, Taiwanese scholar Li corresponded to these three well-being developments and selected three operational mental health skills: &amp;quot;&amp;quot;Befriend-Mindfulness-Identity&amp;quot;&amp;quot; as the Mental Health BMI Well-Being Index questionnaire (mBMI). After using them to evaluate 739 people, it was evident that the scores of the above two questionnaires were significantly correlated, and the mBMI questionnaire total score and Questions B, M, and I could effectively predict the total score, social, emotional, and psychological well-being of the MHC-SF, with a total explanatory power of 30.3%. This test should be used as a simple screening for well-being and as a positive mental health screening tool. Additionally, a Depression Scale Screening Tool for Negative Mental Health Depression was combined to explore the complete mental health state model of Taiwanese people. &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; Therefore, in this study, the mBMI questionnaire was selected as a simple tool to measure positive mental health well-being, and the patients&amp;rsquo; health questionnaire for depression was used as a screening tool for negative mental health indicators. These are used as positive and negative indicators to test whether a complete or incomplete mental health state model fits. The questionnaire survey method was used to deliberately sample the data from 739 valid samples, and the cluster analysis method was used for statistical grouping to verify its suitability. According to the results of the aforementioned positive and negative indicators, four meaningful clusters were distinguished, including one complete and three incomplete mental health models. One cluster was &amp;quot;&amp;quot;Flourishing type&amp;quot;&amp;quot;(46.28%) of high well-being and low depression, which belonged to the complete mental health state model. The other three clusters were incomplete mental health state models. &amp;quot;&amp;quot;Fighting type&amp;quot;&amp;quot; (31.94%) of high well-being and high depression, &amp;quot;&amp;quot;Calm type&amp;quot;&amp;quot; (11.10%) of low well-being and low depression, and &amp;quot;&amp;quot;Chaos type&amp;quot;&amp;quot; (10.69%) of low well-being and high depression could fight for high well-being. It was verified that well-being and depression could be used as positive and negative mental health indicators to screen for complete or incomplete mental health state models. When we identified people with high depression, we encouraged them to refer to the source of high well-being of the &amp;quot;&amp;quot;fighting type&amp;quot;&amp;quot; group and increase their sense of self-worth by participating in clubs to obtain interpersonal support, find jobs, and earn income. We reminded the &amp;quot;&amp;quot;calm type&amp;quot;&amp;quot; people with low depression to promote their high well-being to have a complete mental health state. Finally, we monitored positive and negative indicators of mental health using screening tools of the Mental Health BMI Well-Being Index and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) to screen for complete or incomplete mental health states as a reference for promoting positive and negative mental health. The befriend-mindfulness-identity skills should be improved to promote well-being and adjust depression to achieve complete mental health.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;

Informal Fish Distribution Patterns and Food Access and Security among Low Income Earners in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania

Informal Fish Distribution Patterns and Food Access and Security among Low Income Earners in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania

Customer Awareness and Satisfaction towards Services of Life Insurance Corporation of India in Athoor Block Dindigul District

The insurance sector in India has come a full circle from an open competitive market to a nationalisation and again a liberalised market. Life insurance is generally known as a tool to eliminate risk, replace uncertainty, and ensure timely support to the family in the unfortunate death of an income earner. Sensing risk, measuring it and weighing its cost are an integral part of the administration. The main objective of the study is To know the Customer awareness and satisfaction towards LIC of India and To study the factors influence the customer buying behavior towards LIC products. The insurance business is unique, which is rewarded for managing the risk of the other party. The insurance sector in India not only plays a role in the financial system but also has significant socio-economic functions that provide risk protection to poor people. The insurance sector in India not only plays a role in the financial system but also has significant socio-economic functions that provide risk protection to poor people. The satisfaction of the consumer depends on the actual performance in relation to the buyer’s expectations. If the effectiveness of the product matches the expectations, the consumer is satisfied.

Effects of the Expansion of the Earned Income Tax Credit for Childless Young Adults on Material Wellbeing

Effects of the Expansion of the Earned Income Tax Credit for Childless Young Adults on Material Wellbeing

Packaged Drinking Water Analysis of Consumers Needs, Awareness, Satisfaction and Loyalty of Krishnagiri District

Purpose: Drinking Water is most precious for humans, but most of the urban and backward dry places of the study areas were suffering from clean drinking water shortage in the effect of development of industries. It is using huge quantity of water. In this situation consumers are pushing to purchase the packaged drinking water at cost, because in all the places of India drinking water are giving free of cost by government and it is not clean for drinking. The purpose of the present research was to identify and analyze the consumer attitude and behavior of packaged drinking water in Krishnagiri District, Tamilnadu. This research solved consumer fears among the packaged drinking water needs.Methodology: The research used convenient sampling method for collecting the primary data from various users of Krishnagiri district. And it is used interview schedule method and also used various statistical tools for analyzing and interpreting research such as Analysis of Variance test, multiple regression analysis and Chi-square test. It is tested for sampling reliability, pre-test and pilot study before collecting the primary data.Findings: There is no significant difference between the age group in years of packaged drinking water users with regard to factors of consumer attitude, since the P value is greater than 0.05. Hence the null hypothesis is accepted at 5% level with regard to factors of consumer attitude. The study finds Consumer behavior is extracting consumer attitude, because it is continuously change their behavior for choosing their brand. Hence mode of income earning of daily are low level of consumer attitude of packaged drinking water users and business profit withdraw of income are high level of consumer attitude of packaged drinking water users.Originality: The result of the research is there is no significant difference between the age group in years of packaged drinking water users with regard to factors of consumer attitude. The consumer behavior is extracting consumer attitude because continuous changes of behavior makes attitude in preferring the packaged drinking water. The implications of the future and practical research are to analyze the consumer loyalty and consumer satisfaction of the packaged drinking water.

근로자 복지포인트에 대한 소득세 과세 문제

Recently, companies are paying workers welfare points as part of selective welfare systems. There are two main legal issues on welfare points. First, it is a question of whether this is ordinary wage under the Labor Standards Act or whether this is earned income under the Income Tax Act. The Supreme Court ruled in 2019 that welfare points given to workers were not wages under the Labor Standards Act. This precedent served as an opportunity to create a new discussion on whether welfare points that do not have wage characteristics are taxable earned income under the Income Tax Act.&#x0D; However, the ruling continues to be made that it is justified to impose income tax on welfare points recently. This is because the court judged earned income as a broader concept than wages by dividing wages and earned income.&#x0D; The problem is that the taxation authorities are taxing income tax on welfare points received by employees belonging to public corporations and private companies, while they are not taxing welfare points awarded by government officials. This taxation discrimination is again a problem in that it it violates equality taxation.&#x0D; In this article, to identify these problems, we first examine the legal nature of welfare points, and then examine the logical relationship between wage denial and the scope of earned income taxation on welfare points. Next, in examining whether welfare points correspond to earned income under the Income Tax Act, the scope of earned income is explained, and then the overall taxation of welfare points, a type of additional benefit, is addressed. In addition, we examine whether the tax administration that delays taxation on welfare points for public officials is appropriate in terms of fairness in the tax burden.&#x0D; In conclusion, welfare points should be taxed as earned income as economic benefits based on working conditions or work in a broad sense. The reason for this can be found in Article 20 of the Income Tax Act, which sets the scope of earned income, that salaries similar to those received by providing work are considered earned income, and that economic benefits other than money are subject to total income according to the interpretation of Article 24 (2) of the Income Tax Act.&#x0D; Finally, as a future task, it is necessary to seek legal and institutional improvement measures to bring them into the tax law taxation system. The plan is to tax typical additional benefits by listing them in laws and regulations, and to establish tax-free regulations by setting the targets of minor benefits of workers excluding high-earned income earners.

The Relationship between Different Levels of Education and Income Earnings: A Case Study of Islamia College Peshawar

The objective of this paper is to find out that how different levels of education effect income earnings of the people at Islamia College Peshawar. For this purpose, cross sectional data was collected from 40 respondents employed in different departments at Islamia College Peshawar. The result shows that higher education leads to higher level of income. On the basis of study it is suggested that the public expenditures should be increase on education so that the quality as well as the quantity of education should increase which will leads to higher employment level as a result the living standards of the people will also be improved.

DEVELOPMENT OF A MULTI-PISTON BINDERLESS BRIQUETTING MACHINE

Cooking and heating fuels needed for everyday survival is experiencing either dwindling supply, fluctuating prices or difficulty in accessing it, with developing countries being the worst hit, so the poor and low income earners rely greatly on fuelwood to meet their everyday energy needs. Agricultural waste residues can be a reliable alternative to fossil fuels and fuelwood when converted into solid fuels called briquettes, whose quality is determined by the production factors. In this research, a multi-piston binderless briquetting machine was designed, fabricated and tested by producing briquettes from selected biomass wastes (corn cob, sugarcane bagasse, groundnut shell, sawdust and rice husk) and polyethylene wastes (sachet water wastes), using the machine. Experimental run was designed via Taguchi fractional factorial using Minitab 17 software, for 27 runs orthogonal array. Input factors; moulding temperature (250, 270 and 290 0C), Moulding pressure (46, 56 and 66 MPa), composition of polyethylene (10, 20 and 30%) and dwell time (60, 180 and 300 seconds) were varied. From the analysis of the materials and briquettes produced, highest bulk density of the mixed material was 250kg/m3, highest compressed density of the briquettes was 587 kg/m3, highest relaxed density was 545 kg/m3 while highest calorific value was 26.3162 MJ/kg. For proximate analysis, lowest moisture content of the briquettes was 0.04%, lowest volatile matter was 71.63%, lowest ash content was 2.77% and highest fixed carbon was 20.40%. Fuels produced from these selected materials were fuels of good qualities that can provide alternative to fossil fuels and fuelwood.

Inspirational Influence of Nature in Architectural Design – A Review on the Scope of Application in Nigeria Housing Policy

The growing need for housing and infrastructural development is depleting and transforming green spaces to built environment. This transformation is altering the functioning of the natural processes that sustain life. However, conservation strategies through the science of biomimetic architecture show how nature offers the best ideas for regenerative infrastructural designs that humans can incorporate in planning. These natural forms of life provide insight on how designing housing and public infrastructures can promote efficiency in energy savings, waste management, nutrient provision, water management, adaptation to local condition, accommodating ecological hazards, sustaining the wellbeing of the occupants and reducing the frequency of visiting the natural capital. In Nigeria, housing policy programmes have primarily been focusing on ensuring affordable and available housing for all Nigerians. However, while the policy is being challenged in achieving its primary objective, it lacks biomimetic design in its elements, and ecological hazards (floods and erosion) are degrading/or destroying existing infrastructures in some Nigerian communities. Consequently, there is a need to integrate biomimetic designs in Nigeria housing policy and programme so as to capture the philosophy that a house is not only limited in providing shelter for humans, but also how the design of the house integrates into the natural functioning of the environment in resource provision, energy savings and environmental sustenance. The application of this approach can be achieved through the inclusion of biomimetic design incentives in building permit approval process to manage externalities associated with the infrastructure, while also taking into cognisance the housing needs of the poor, and the huge infrastructural investments of high income earners and the public. This approach will reshape consumption behaviour; develops a built environment that integrates and functions without resistance with its local condition in resource provision, waste management for its occupants, and enhance sustainability of resources base.

Cultural Tourism in the Tourism Industry in Patan Area, Nepal

The objectives of the study are to determine the benefit of cultural tourism for local people around Patan Darbar Square and assess the association between external tourist arrival for cultural tourism and income earning of Patan Darbar Square. This study was also based on both primary and secondary data The study used a descriptive research design and a case study method. This study adopted a qualitative method for the first objective of the study and a quantitative method for the second objective. Interviews were used for primary data. Interviews were conducted with culturalists, employees of Lalitpur Metropolitan City, and social workers within Patan Darbar Square in Nepal. Judgmental sampling techniques were adopted to collect primary data. Secondary data was collected from Lalitpur Metropolitan City of Lalitpur district. The simple correlation was used for quantitative data analysis whereas thematic analysis was used for qualitative data. According to the interview of research participants, cultural tourism provides benefits for local people around Patan Darbar Square in varied ways. There is a low positive correlation between external tourist arrival for cultural tourism and the income earning of Patan Darbar Square in Nepal. Practical implication of this study is that the metropolitan city should preserve and mobilize several tangible and intangible cultural heritages to earn much more foreign exchange.

WORKING WIVES, RESOLVING DYSFUNCTIONAL HOUSEHOLD HARMONY: A STUDY ON STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL THEORY AND ISLAMIC LAW PERSPECTIVE

Wives are often the economic contributors of families, especially those with low income. They are additional income earners for the family. This phenomenon also occurs in Temanggung Regency. They work in various sectors, from the domestic to the public sector, because most men in Temanggung work as farmers and laborers, so their income does not fulfill the family's economic needs. This article examines the phenomenon of working wives in Temanggung Regency from the perspective of Islamic law and Talcott Parson's structural-functionalism theory. In the Qur'an, the husband's responsibility is to complete the family's needs according to his portion of the duties because men have physical advantages over women. Islamic law allows wives to work in Temanggung if they do not neglect their primary duties as homemakers. However, Islam is not permitted if it will cause disharmony in the family. From Parson's perspective, it has been classified that the wife's job is to work at home, and the husband's job is to work outside, so there is no competition in the household. Regardless, working wives in Temanggung help husbands fulfill family needs to overcome dysfunctional household harmony

Quantitative Synthesis of Factors Associated with COVID-19 Vaccine Acceptance and Vaccine Hesitancy in 185 Countries.

Mass vaccination against COVID-19 is the best method to ensure herd immunity in order to curb the effect of the pandemic on the global economy. It is therefore important to assess the determinants of COVID-19 vaccine acceptance and hesitancy on a global scale. Factors were recorded from cross-sectional studies analyzed with t-Test, ANOVA, correlation, and meta-regression analyses and synthesized to identify global trends in order to inform policy. We registered the protocol (ID: CRD42022350418) and used standard Cochrane methods and PRISMA guidelines to collect and synthesize cross-sectional articles published between January 2020 and August 2023. A total of 67 articles with 576 studies from 185 countries involving 3081,766 participants were included in this synthesis. Global COVID-19 vaccine acceptance was 65.27% (95% CI; 62.72-67.84%), while global vaccine hesitancy stood at 32.1% (95% CI; 29.05-35.17%). One-Way ANOVA showed that there was no significant difference in the percentage Gross Domestic Product spent on vaccine procurement across the World Bank income levels (p < 0.187). There was a significant difference of vaccine acceptance (p < 0.001) and vaccine hesitancy (p < 0.005) across the different World Bank Income levels. World Bank income level had a strong influence on COVID-19 vaccine acceptance (p < 0.0004) and hesitancy (p < 0.003) but percentage Gross Domestic Product spent on vaccine procurement did not. There was no correlation between percentage Gross Domestic Product spent on vaccine procurement and COVID-19 vaccine acceptance (r = -0.11, p < 0.164) or vaccine hesitancy (r = -0.09, p < 0.234). Meta-regression analysis showed that living in an urban setting (OR = 4.83, 95% CI; 0.67-212.8), rural setting (OR = 2.53, 95% CI; 0.29-119.33), older (OR = 1.98, 95% CI; 0.99-4.07), higher education (OR = 1.76, 95% CI; 0.85-3.81), and being a low income earner (OR = 2.85, 95% CI; 0.45-30.63) increased the odds of high COVID-19 vaccine acceptance. Factors that increased the odds of high COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy were no influenza vaccine (OR = 33.06, 95% CI; 5.03-1395.01), mistrust for vaccines (OR = 3.91, 95% CI; 1.92-8.24), complacency (OR = 2.86, 95% CI; 1.02-8.83), pregnancy (OR = 2.3, 95% CI; 0.12-141.76), taking traditional herbs (OR = 2.15, 95% CI; 0.52-10.42), being female (OR = 1.53, 95% CI; 0.78-3.01), and safety concerns (OR = 1.29, 95% CI; 0.67-2.51). We proposed a number of recommendations to increase vaccine acceptance and ensure global herd immunity against COVID-19.

Carbon inequality in residential buildings: Evidence from 321 Chinese cities

All human beings contribute to climate change; however, their contributions are not equal. Using China as an example, the core objective of this study is to explore the city-level carbon inequality of residential buildings from 2015 to 2020 combined Theil index and Gini coefficient. The outcomes indicate that: (1) Total residential buildings' carbon emissions in 321 Chinese cities increased from 987.81 million tons (Mt) in 2015 to 1161.70 Mt. in 2020; the leading five cities that own the largest carbon emissions are Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Shenyang, and Harbin in 2020. (2) Among eight major economic zones of China, the highest residential buildings' carbon emission per capita and residents' disposable income per capita are the Northeast Economic Zone and Eastern Coastal Economic Zone, respectively. (3) Both the Theil index and Gini coefficient show that the overall carbon inequality is higher than income inequality; the Theil index decomposition indicates that city-level carbon inequality has declined; the key forces of carbon emission per capita and disposable income per capita inequality are inter-regional inequality (contribution rate: 55%–63%) and intra-regional inequality (contribution rate: 59%–63%), respectively. (4) Moreover, regarding income earners during 2015–2020 period, the top 10% of 321 cities occupy about 33% in the total national residential buildings' carbon emissions; the medium 40% of cities account for about 42% in total carbon emissions; in contrast, the bottom 50% of cities represent only about 25% of the total carbon emissions. These discoveries emphasize the necessity for the Chinese government to pay more attention to city-level residential building carbon emissions to track advances toward residents' sustainable lifestyles.

The association of safety-net program participation with government perceptions, welfare stigma, and discrimination.

Safety-net programs in the United States offered critical support to counter food insecurity and poverty during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) are both means-tested programs with significant benefits. Take-up of SNAP and EITC is lower in California than nationwide and reasons for this difference are unclear. We examined associations of participation in SNAP and receipt of the EITC and perceptions of the US government, 2 types of welfare stigma (program stigma and social stigma), and perceived discrimination. We interviewed a sample of 497 caregivers of young children from families with low income in California during the COVID-19 pandemic (August 2020-May 2021). We found that participation in SNAP (odds ratio [OR] = 1.24 [1.05, 1.47]) and receiving the EITC (OR = 1.39 [1.05, 1.84]) were both associated with greater reported perceptions of social stigma, but not with perceptions of government, program stigma, or discrimination. Among food-insecure respondents, we found that participation in SNAP was additionally associated with program stigma and discrimination. These findings suggest that perceived social stigma may be a reason that people with low income may not participate in programs for which they are eligible.

Public Benefit Programs and Differential Associations With Child Maltreatment by Race and Ethnicity

Public benefit programs, including state spending on local, state, and federal-state partnership programs, have consistently been associated with overall reductions in child protective services (CPS) involvement. Inequities in eligibility and access to benefit programs may contribute to varying associations by race and ethnicity. To determine whether associations between state spending on benefit programs and rates of CPS investigations differ by race and ethnicity. This cross-sectional ecological study used repeated state-level measures of child maltreatment from the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System and population estimates from the US Census Bureau for all Black, Hispanic, and White children. All 50 US states from October 1, 2009, through September 30, 2019 (fiscal years 2010-2019), were included. Data were collected and analyzed from May 13, 2022, to March 2, 2023. Annual state spending on benefit programs per person living below the federal poverty limit, total and by the following subcategories: (1) cash, housing, and in-kind; (2) housing infrastructure; (3) child care assistance; (4) refundable earned income tax credit; and (5) medical assistance programs. Race- and ethnicity-specific rates of CPS investigations. Generalized estimating equations, with repeated measures of states, an interaction between race and spending, and estimated incidence rate ratios (IRRs) and 95% CIs for incremental changes in spending of US $1000 per person living below the federal poverty limit were calculated after adjustment for federal spending, race- and ethnicity-specific child poverty rate, and year. A total of 493 state-year observations were included in the analysis. The association between total spending and CPS investigations differed significantly by race and ethnicity: there was an inverse association between total state spending and CPS investigations for White children (IRR, 0.94 [95% CI, 0.91-0.98]) but not for Black children (IRR, 0.98 [95% CI, 0.94-1.02]) or Hispanic children (IRR, 0.99 [95% CI, 0.95-1.03]) (P = .02 for interaction). Likewise, inverse associations were present for only White children with respect to all subcategories of state spending and differed significantly from Black and Hispanic children for all subcategories except the refundable earned income tax credit (eg, IRR for medical assistance programs for White children, 0.89 [95% CI, 0.82-0.96]; P = .005 for race and spending interaction term). These results raise concerns that benefit programs may add relative advantages for White children compared with Black and Hispanic children and contribute to racial and ethnic disparities in CPS investigations. States' eligibility criteria and distribution practices should be examined to promote equitable effects on adverse child outcomes.