Early Sport Research Articles

Long-term follow up from the Harvard Alumni Health Study: collegiate sport participation in males is associated with higher physical activity throughout midlife

ObjectiveTo compare physical activity (PA) over midlife between (1) former collegiate athletes and non-athletes and (2) among athletes in different sports.MethodsThe Harvard Alumni Health Study (HAHS) is a prospective cohort...

Balancing Performance and Health in Elite Hungarian Athletes: The Relationship Among Disordered Eating Risk, Body Composition, and Nutrition Knowledge.

disordered eating (DE) and eating disorders (ED) can negatively impact athletes' health, wellbeing, and athletic performance. this cross-sectional study aims to assess DE risk, body composition, and nutrition knowledge among elite Hungarian athletes. DE risk was assessed using DESA-6H and EAT-26 scales, nutrition knowledge through the Abridged Nutrition for Sport Knowledge Questionnaire (A-NSKQ), and body composition with the OMRON BF511 device. The data were analyzed using Kendall's tau correlations, Mann-Whitney U tests, and ROC analysis. a total of 71 athletes participated (39.4% males, mean age = 24.8 years, SD = 4.8 years and 60.6% females, mean age = 24.3 years, SD = 4.3 years). At-risk scores on the DESA-6H scale were recorded for nine athletes (12.7%), while 32.4% scored in the risk zone on the EAT-26, with female athletes in aesthetic, endurance and weight-dependent sports being most affected. Low BF was observed in four males and four females. Nutrition knowledge (49.1%) was below the acceptable threshold. DESA-6H significantly correlated with EAT-26 scores, BMI, sports nutrition knowledge, and A-NSKQ total scores. A statistically significant difference by gender was found in the EAT-26 total score (p = 0.019, d = 0.65). Risk groups significantly differed in A-NSKQ scores (p = 0.026, d = 0.511) and sport nutrition knowledge, specifically (p = 0.016, d = 0.491). Using EAT-26 to identify at-risk athletes and the DESA-6H recommended cut-off, the ROC analysis showed a sensitivity of 29.1% and a specificity of 95.7%. insufficient nutrition knowledge plays a role in being at-risk for DE and ED. These results underscore the need for early detection, early sport nutrition education across all elite athletes, with particular attention to female athletes in aesthetic, endurance and weight-dependent sports, and for monitoring these athletes to prevent DE. Further work is warranted to optimize screening tools such as EAT-26 and DESA-6H for elite athletes.

Effects of early sports specialization on landing and balance ability in female college basketball players

ABSTRACT Objectives Early specialization in a single sport from childhood is associated with an increased risk for acute and overuse injuries. Conversely, experience in multiple sports may be associated with improved neuromuscular control and performance. Currently, early sports specialization remains poorly researched in Japan. Therefore, this study aimed to clarify the relationship between early sports specialization and landing and balance ability in Japan. Methods Thirty-eight female college basketball players were included and divided into the early specialization and nonspecialization groups. Landing and balance ability was measured using the one-leg jump-landing test, and the Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT) differences between the two groups were examined using unpaired t-test. Results Results showed no significant differences in SEBT between the two groups. In the one-leg jump-landing test, the vertical maximum ground reaction force and loading rate of the nondominant foot were significantly higher in the early specialization group than in the nonspecialization group. Conclusion Thus, in female college basketball players, early specialization may affect ground reaction forces and loading rate and may be a factor in developing acute and overuse injuries.

Early specialization in formative basketball: A machine learning analysis of shooting patterns in U14 and professional players

ABSTRACT Growing evidence supports that early sport specialization in children and adolescents may compromise long-term athlete development and high-performance acquisition. This study aimed to determine the presence of specialised shooting roles in formative men’s basketball players compared to professionals. Data from shot charts of U14 and professional basketball players during the 2020–21 and 2021–22 seasons were retrieved. Shooting zones were classified by machine learning and clustering analyses. Shooting patterns were defined as extreme field goal attempts (FGA%) from a particular shooting zone. Players who exhibited an outlier shooting pattern were considered specialists. U14 basketball players described singular shooting patterns that largely differed from professionals’ requirements (p < 0.001, ES = 0.51). U14 players lacked shooting versatility (2.3% vs. 36.3%) and 3-point shooting ability (1.8 vs. 17.2%). In contrast, the professional competition was characterised by having either versatile players without specialisation (62.7%) or one-zone specialist shooters accumulating most of their %FGA in one court zone (38%). These findings suggested that increasing shooting versatility or becoming a one-zone specialist shooter could significantly impact the development and progression of young basketball players in the long term. Current formative basketball training approaches should be revised accordingly to enhance shooting skills and promote the development of polyvalent players.

An Evolutionary Psychology Perspective on Athletic Development and Performance: Differences Between Proximate and Ultimate Explanations.

Many areas of mainstream psychology have embraced the notions that understanding human behaviour can be improved by integrating developments from evolutionary science; however, evolutionary principles have not been as widely applied among sport researchers or practitioners, especially those examining athlete development and the psychology of competition and performance. In this paper, we discuss the distinction between ultimate and proximate explanations of psychological outcomes, and the relevance of this distinction for exploring issues related to skill acquisition and athlete development. We use three examples-deliberate practice, early sport play and sustained engagement-to highlight the benefits and challenges of applying evolutionary theories to sport contexts. Embracing our species' evolutionary history has the potential to inform ongoing debates in athlete development and performance, among other areas of sport science.

Pediatric Anterior Cruciate Ligament Tears.

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears have become an increasingly prevalent problem in pediatric patients due to increased youth sports participation and early sports specialization. A high index of suspicion should be utilized for any young patient with an acute knee injury and an associated effusion or difficulty bearing weight. A thorough work-up should be performed that includes a careful assessment of growth remaining and concomitant injuries. While nonoperative management may be a consideration for select cases, most patients will benefit from early surgical management. ACL deficiency or delayed reconstruction can lead to early chondral degeneration and risk for further injury to the cartilage and menisci. The goal of ACL reconstruction is to create a stable knee and prevent secondary chondral or meniscal injury. Physeal-sparing and physeal-respecting transphyseal techniques have been developed that allow for safe and successful ligament reconstruction while minimizing the risk of growth arrest. Younger patients have a higher risk of reinjury and require a longer recovery period for a full return to sports than their older counterparts. Even though there have been advances in the safe and successful treatment of ACL tears in pediatric patients, it remains a devastating physical and psychological injury, and increased efforts should be made at prevention. Injury prevention programs have been shown to reduce the risk of ACL tears, and it is important to increase awareness and utilization of prevention strategies.

Effects of Combined Visual-Motor Response Training on Cognitive Function and Brain Plasticity Mechanisms in Various Populations: Protocol for a Single-Center, Open-Label, Controlled Clinical Trial.

Cognitive impairment is one of the major diseases facing the aging population. The progressive decline of cognitive function can lead to declining health or even the loss of life, work, and social ability. Exercise and behavioral stimulation can increase neurotransmitters in the brain and improve overall health and cognitive function. Reactivity training can mobilize neuromuscular function and induce changes in brain plasticity, which may effectively improve cognitive dysfunction and delay the occurrence and development of Alzheimer disease; however, the evidence supporting its effectiveness is still limited. This study aims to explore the effectiveness and reliability of visual-motor reaction training in improving cognitive function, thereby promoting the application of novel nonpharmacological therapies. This study is a single-center, open-label, controlled clinical trial. A total of 78 participants will be recruited for the study, including an equal number of athletes, ordinary healthy college students, and ordinary older adults in the community. Participants will receive 2 weeks of visual-motor response training. The primary outcome of this study is to assess differences in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) at 2 weeks. The secondary outcomes were the following: acousto-optic response time, Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D), Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A), Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE), Activity of Daily Living (ADL) Scale, Subjective Cognitive Decline Questionnaire-9 (SCD-Q9), a 10-word memory test, and safety. The study was approved by the Shanghai Clinical Research Ethics Committee on January 2, 2024 (SECCR/2023-162-01). As of September 11, 2024, we have completed the recruitment of all 3 groups of volunteers. We expect to complete data collection and analysis by February 2025. The purpose of this study is to compare improvements in brain perceptual motor functions and cognitive levels across different populations through response ability training and to explore the efficacy and safety of exercise-based nonpharmacological therapies in improving cognitive function. Other potential benefits include understanding the functional differences and perceptual characteristics of the brain's perceptual-motor system between athletes and the general population and exploring the adaptability of the brain in acquiring skills during competitive sports training. This could provide an evidence base for early sports talent development and broader youth development. Chinese Clinical Trial Registry ChiCTR2400079602; https://tinyurl.com/23fbbndw. DERR1-10.2196/56424.

Early sports specialization in Japanese young soccer players and related factors.

Although understanding the status of sports participation is essential for preventing injuries in young athletes, the level of specialization and relevant information in Japan is unknown. This study aimed to clarify the status of sports specialization and examine the relationships between specialization and training status in Japanese young soccer players. Four hundred Japanese young male soccer players were included. The players' parents completed a web questionnaire that consisted of three-point questions regarding specialization and training status (year, days of playing soccer, age when starting soccer). The level of specialization and accompanying information were calculated, and data were compared by specialization status. Of the participants, 53.8% demonstrated a high level of specialization. In addition, 74.5% considered soccer more important than other sports, 89.0% trained in soccer for more than 8 months of the year, and 74.0% had quit other sports to focus on soccer or played only soccer. The proportion of participants who played only soccer was significantly higher in the high-specialization group (37.6%) than in the moderate-specialization (22.5%; P < .01) and low-specialization (7.1%; P < .01) groups. By specialization status at grades 4 to 6 (9-12 years), 40.3% of participants demonstrated a high level of specialization. Young Japanese soccer players tend toward early specialization. Factors contributing to the high specialization level are being active throughout the year and rarely playing other sports. Training volume should be controlled, and an environment allowing young soccer players to participate in other sports simultaneously is needed, with early specialization being avoided.

The Effect of Sport Specialization on Injury Risk in NCAA Athletes: Results From the SAFE Consortium.

Youth athletes are beginning to specialize in a single sport more often. Previous studies in sports medicine and orthopedics have shown an association between intensity of sport specialization and incidence of injuries. This study is the first of its kind to explore the effects of early sport specialization on injury risk through a multicenter framework with a concentration on NCAA athletics. Retrospective cohort study. SAFE Consortium. A total of 211 collegiate athletes from the NCAA's 3 levels of competition: Division I, II, and III. Data were collected by the SAFE investigators. N/A. Participants completed a questionnaire about their demographics, sport participation, specialization status, physical injuries, recovery period, and treatment method. Specialization status was calculated with a previously published 3-point scale: low, moderate, and high. Injuries were categorized as upper extremity injuries (UEIs) and lower extremity injuries (LEIs). Highly specialized athletes were more likely to report UEIs and LEIs than low specialized athletes ( P < 0.0001). Moderate specialization, in contrast to low specialization, was associated with a higher likelihood of LEIs ( P = 0.03) but not UEIs ( P = 0.052). Highly specialized athletes were more likely to report an injury of any kind. The SAFE investigators found high specialization was associated with a history of UEIs and LEIs. Return to play was longer for highly specialized athletes versus low specialized athletes (112 days and 85 days, respectively). Highly specialized athletes were more likely to be from Division I and to require surgery.

Ulnar Collateral Ligament Reconstruction Utilizing a 3-Strand Palmaris Tendon Autograft With a Hybrid Linear Construct

The integrity of the medial ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) of the elbow is vital for the throwing athlete. Although newer techniques exist, reconstruction remains the gold standard for full-thickness UCL tears. An increase in throwing velocity, inadequate recovery, and early sports specialization have contributed to increased rates of UCL injury. As increasing numbers of athletes undergo UCL reconstruction, we continue to search for the optimal technique to return athletes to the same level of competition. We present a UCL reconstruction utilizing a 3-stranded palmaris longus tendon autograft with an inlay linear construct.

The early sport specialization paradox: an argument for early sport diversification in female athletes.

The early sport specialization paradox: an argument for early sport diversification in female athletes.

Impact Of Early Childhood Sports Intervention on The Discovery of Physical Fitness Potential of Young Children: Jiang Xi Province

This study highlights the significance of forming lifelong physical activity habits at a young age by investigating the effects of early childhood sports intervention on young children's capacity for physical fitness in Jiangxi Province, China. The study looks at physical strength, flexibility, coordination, and cardiovascular health using a quantitative methodology that includes surveys and objective evaluations. Partial Least Squares regression is used for analysis. The results show that sports intervention programmes have a positive impact on participants' potential for physical fitness as well as their emotional, social, and cognitive development. While practical implications place an emphasis on policy integration and community partnerships, theoretical implications depend on a variety of theories to understand developmental outcomes. Nonetheless certain limitations, such as the cross-sectional design, the study offers insightful information about how sports intervention might promote children's well-being and suggests future research directions to improve generalizability and deepen understanding.

Diving Into Sports Specialization: The Association of Early Specialization on Injury Rates in Youth to Young Adult Divers.

This study explored the link between early sports specialization and injury rates in youth divers, a relationship that remains largely unexplored within diving. Cross-sectional survey. Members of the USA Diving Organization and collegiate male and female divers participated in an online survey, reporting their sports involvement and injury history. One hundred eighty-two male and female divers aged 8 to 25 years were recruited through USA Diving or US collegiate team databases. Early/late specialization (based on age <12 or 12 years or older), gender (M/F), springboard and/or platform divers, experience (junior/senior, regional/zone/national/international), hours of dryland/water training, and prior sport exposure. Injury history obtained on questionnaire. One hundred eighty-two divers were surveyed; 70% female. Age to start diving and age to concentrate solely on diving were significantly associated with certain injuries (P < 0.05). Beginning diving before age 13 years of age was significantly associated with lower odds of injuries in the shoulder and wrist (P = 0.013 and 0.018, respectively), after adjusting for select covariates. Age of specialization was not significantly associated with injuries in any body part (P > 0.05), after adjusting for covariates. Greater years of diving experience was significantly associated with diving injuries in all 11 body parts (P < 0.05). This study indicates that early sports specialization is associated with decreased injury rates in elite youth divers who specialized before age 13 years, particularly for head/neck, shoulder, and wrist injuries. Moreover, we observed a positive correlation between experience and injury rate. Further investigation should focus on distinguishing between acute and overuse injuries.

Motivation and Behaviors Related to Sport Specialization in Collegiate Baseball Players.

Early sport specialization is a growing concern among youth sport athletes, particularly in baseball. Motivation to participate in sports is an important factor in determining which sports youth athletes participate in and why. To qualitatively investigate the youth sport participation behaviors and motivations of collegiate baseball players. Qualitative study. Online teleconference. We conducted 25 semistructured interviews with collegiate baseball athletes who were classified as high-level (n = 8), moderate-level (n = 9), or low-level (n = 8) specialists before college. Participants completed individual semistructured interviews to allow us to develop an understanding of their youth and high school sports experiences and associated motivations to engage in those experiences. A framework analysis approach was used to analyze the transcript data and identify themes among the 3 specialization groups. From our interview analysis, 6 overall themes emerged: (1) motivation, (2) stress, (3) quitting, (4) barriers, (5) facilitators of success, and (6) future directions. Moderate- and high-level specialists described greater levels of passion, participating in deliberate practice, greater levels of performance-related stress, and more desire to quit sports than low-level specialists. None of the groups cited parents as an overbearing external motivator to participate in sport at an early age. Participants who were classified as low-, moderate-, or high-level specialists noted different experiences related to their motivation, stress level, desire to quit, barriers to participating in baseball, facilitators of success, and their overall future career goals after completing baseball. This information may be useful for parents, coaches, and health care professionals to better communicate the benefits and risks associated with sport specialization to youth athletes. Future research is needed to determine if differences in motivation levels exist in younger populations.

Early childhood physical activity parenting and sport club participation as predictors of perceived motor competence – a three-year longitudinal study

ABSTRACT Background & purpose Enhancing perceived motor competence (PMC) is an important factor in increasing the physical activity and motor competence of children. Longitudinal research is needed to identify the factors that support children’s positive and realistic PMC development. To address this research gap, we examined physical activity parenting (PAP) and sports club participation (SCP) as predictors of children’s PMC. Methods We assessed PMC using a modified pictorial scale of perceived movement skill competence (PMSC) for young children at the following two time points: in early childhood education and care (ECEC) (T1; N = 259; Mage = 6.27 ± .67; 50.2% boys) and approximately three years later in primary school (T2; N = 259; Mage = 9.45 ± .79 years). PAP and SCP (the type and number of sports) were examined using a parental questionnaire (N = 259; Mage = 36.2 ± 5.64). The children’s actual motor competence (AMC) was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development – Third Edition (TGMD-3). Linear regression analyses were performed to examine how the number of sports in which a child participates (SCPsum) predicted PMC. Then, we analysed how participation in a specific type of sport (locomotor and ball sports) predicted PMC in terms of locomotor skills, ball skills and total skills. The analyses were adjusted for the T2–T1 time difference and AMC. Results PAP was a significant predictor of PMC three years later for ECEC-aged girls but not for boys. Moreover, participation in a ball sport at T1 predicted higher scores for girls’ PMC at T2. In addition, the girls who participated in more than one ball sport exhibited lower PMC at T2. For boys, higher AMC, higher BMI and less access to electronic devices at T1 predicted higher PMC at T2. Conclusion The results suggest that PAP in ECEC age is important for girls’ PMC development over time. The role of SCP was ambiguous in girls. Participation especially in ball sports may have different influences on PMC in girls depending on the frequency of participation. Therefore, parents, sport instructors and coaches should adapt their child rearing and pedagogical practices by considering child PMC development in addition to promoting physical activity and skills.

Early sport specialization impact on rates of injury in collegiate and professional sport participation: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Early sport specialization (ESS) is prevalent among adolescent athletes aspiring for elite status. However, the impact of ESS on sports injury (SI) rates during their collegiate and professional careers remains unclear. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluate the effect of ESS on SI rates during high-level sport participation. Data sources Search included PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, EMBASE, Cochrane, CINAHL, ERIC, and Medline. Study selection PRISMA guidelines were followed to identify peer-reviewed articles published until 01 August 2023. Eligible studies reported numbers of athletes in collegiate and professional teams, including national, in ESS and their counterpart category, along with the portion with at least one SI. Studies on concussion or non-contact injuries, or without explicit injury reports during elite sport participation were excluded. Of 526 studies, 13 met the criteria, and 5 were included in the quantitative analysis. These studies reported SIs on collegiate and professional athletes. A total of 3087 athletes were analyzed (ESS = 45%). The overall effect showed that ESS athletes had a lower odds ratio (OR = 0.7) of a SI during high-level sport participation, but this finding was not statistically significant (p &gt; 0.05). Results demonstrated that ESS athletes had a lower odds ratio (OR = 0.7) of a SI during elite sport participation, but the effect was not statistically significant. Articles with clear reports are scarce, and thus limit the impact of the findings in this study. High heterogeneity was evident in this analysis, largely due to lack of standardized terminology, evaluation, and data representation. Prospective studies that consider diverse athlete population of the same sport are warranted.

State formation, diplomacy and sport: the British Empire Games, Ireland and Northern Ireland, 1930–38

AbstractThis paper considers the interconnected practices of state formation, diplomacy, national identity and sport through an examination of ‘Irish’ involvement in the British Empire Games of 1930, 1934 and 1938. These events had a contradictory role in bolstering diplomatic relations between those who were committed to the empire but also in expressing the aspirations of those who sought independence from it, or a distinct identity within it. State formation and diplomacy played out in sporting contexts — which we term sportcraft — and this process was especially complex in post-partition Ireland. In the period under examination, a gradual but significant hardening of ideologies and identities occurred in certain sports on the island, notably athletics, mirroring the effects of partition and reflecting British and unionist political actions and sportive interests. Original archival and documentary material is presented from state archives in Dublin, London, Belfast and Ottawa, and from official sports collections in Birmingham, London, Stirling, Melbourne (Australia), Hamilton (Canada) and Lausanne (Switzerland). This demonstrates that by the early 1920s, government officials and sports administrators had already recognised the propaganda functions and utility of sport for state formation purposes and for issues of political control, jurisdiction and territorial boundaries.

Association of Sports Practice in Childhood and Adolescence with Cardiac Autonomic Modulation in Adulthood: A Retrospective Epidemiological Study

BackgroundPracticing sports during childhood and adolescence provides benefits to cardiac autonomic modulation (CAM) at these stages of life. However, it is not known whether these benefits to CAM persist into adulthood. Therefore, the objective of this study was to analyze the association of early sports practice (sports practice in childhood and/or adolescence) with CAM in adult life, regardless of habitual moderate-to-vigorous PA.MethodsThe sample of the present study consisted of 242 adults (141 women and 101 men; age: 41.99 ± 16.24). The assessment of CAM was performed using heart rate variability indices. Sports practice in childhood and adolescence was assessed using a questionnaire. The intensity of physical activity was assessed using accelerometry. To analyze the association between previous sports practice (childhood and/or adolescence) and CAM, the Generalized Linear Model was adopted, considering CAM indices as continuous variables and early sports practice as a 3-fold factor (no sports practice; sports practice in childhood or adolescence; and sports practice in both childhood and adolescence) adjusted by sex, age, socioeconomic condition, and moderate to vigorous PA.ResultsSports practice in childhood was associated with the average standard deviation of all normal RR intervals expressed in milliseconds (SDNN): β = 5.89; 95%CI: 0.25;11.52, and the standard deviation of the long-term intervals between consecutive heartbeats (SD2): β = 7.63; 95%CI:1.04; 14.23 indices. Sports practice in adolescence was associated in adulthood with the SD2 index: β = 7.37; 95%CI: 0.71;14.04. Sports practice in at least one of the periods (childhood or adolescence) was significantly associated with the square root of the mean square of the differences between adjacent normal RR intervals for a period of time expressed in milliseconds (RMSSD) (β = 8.86; 95%CI = 0.71;17.01), and the standard deviation of the instantaneous beat to beat variability (SD1) (β = 6.21; 95%CI = 0.45;11.97). Sports practice at both stages of life was significantly associated with better SDNN (β = 7.70; 95%CI = 1.16;14.23) and SD2 (β = 10.18; 95%CI = 2.51;17.85).ConclusionEarly sports practice was associated with better CAM in adulthood, independently of the current physical activity level. Based on these findings, sports practice is encouraged from childhood and adolescence, for benefits to CAM in adult life.

Stress fractures and overuse injuries in children and adolescents

There is an intricate connection between physical activity, bone health, and the susceptibility to stress fractures and overuse injuries. Physical activity has a positive impact on bone strength while a sedentary lifestyle can lead to a heightened risk for injury. The rise of early sports specialization has led to a substantial increase in overuse injuries, particularly in individual sports.Bone Stress Injuries (BSI) represent a category of overuse injuries closely linked to single sport specialization. BSI involves a spectrum of altered bone mechanics, ranging from edema of periosteum, endosteum, and bone; potentially leading to partial or full cortical breaks. This condition is prevalent in high-level athletes and encompasses stress reactions and fractures, resulting from an imbalance between injury creation and repair. Up to 20% of adolescents are affected, with the tibia being the most common location, predominantly occurring in athletes aged 15 to 25. A holistic approach integrating both physical and nutritional aspects is warranted to ensure sustained musculoskeletal health across diverse pediatric and adolescent groups and athletic endeavors. Key Concepts(1)Early and single sports specialization has a substantial impact on overuse injuries.(2)Bone stress injuries are common in high-level athletes resulting from an imbalance between creation and repair of injury.(3)Relative energy deficiency in sports (REDS) is related to a higher risk for recurrent Bone Stress Injuries.(4)Athletes that are lacking vitamin D are found to have an increased risk for stress fractures.

Growing issue of overuse injuries in young athletes

Over the past two decades, participation in professional sports among children and adolescents has surged despite the rising inactivity and obesity rates. Approximately 60 million young individuals in the USA are involved in organized sports. This increase has led to a concerning rise in overuse syndromes, which is becoming a primary concern in sports medicine. Our review aims to examine common overuse syndromes in youth athletes and assess risk factors, pathophysiology, and preventive measures. Early sports specialization, societal pressures, and competitive demands lead to repetitive strain injuries. The young musculoskeletal system, though adaptable, is prone to injuries from intense training and insufficient recovery. Prevention advocates against early sports specialization and promotes adequate rest. Diversifying sports, limiting training hours, and a robust support system are recommended to counteract the mental effects of intense specialization. In summary, a holistic approach is needed to address overuse syndromes, emphasizing diversification, education, and a balanced approach to sports.