Early Spanish-English Bilinguals Research Articles

Investigating local and global control mechanisms in bilingual grammatical processing.

Bilinguals employ both global and local control mechanisms to manage coactivated languages that compete for selection, yet little is known about how they operate on morphosyntactic information. The current study investigated bilingual language control mechanisms for a morphosyntactic production task. Across two experiments, 48 early Spanish-English bilinguals completed rapid instructed task learning paradigms with priming-in-item-recognition manipulations that investigated the extent to which parallel activation was observed across languages and across rules of the same type within a language. The results from the current experiments showed that it was more difficult to reject incorrect responses in the correct target language than to reject incorrect responses that contained the correct grammatical manipulation executed in the nondesired language. These results suggest that global control at the level of target language selection is more effective than local control processes during a bilingual morphosyntactic manipulation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Laterals in Spanish–English bilinguals

Patterns of production of Spanish and English laterals by early sequential Spanish–English bilinguals (L1 and L2 respectively in the order of acquisition) were investigated. A total of 25 early Spanish–English bilinguals, who are all English-dominant (average age of L2 acquisition: 3;9), were recruited. They were recorded while reading sentences aloud in Spanish and in English containing laterals in onset and coda positions adjacent to front and back vowels. Target words with laterals were spectrographically analysed through an investigation of F1 and F2 values. The measurements obtained were compared between the two languages. The results show that the participants maintain separate acoustic realizations for the laterals in all four different phonetic environments in their two languages. Since their lateral productions are mixed with respect to the influence of the two languages, the results suggest that bilinguals’ interrelated systems influence each other at a fine-grained acoustic level.

Interlingual Interactions Elicit Performance Mismatches Not “Compromise” Categories in Early Bilinguals: Evidence from Meta-Analysis and Coronal Stops

Previous studies attest that some early bilinguals produce the sounds of their languages in a manner that is characterized as “compromise” with regard to monolingual speakers. The present study uses meta-analytic techniques and coronal stop data from early bilinguals in order to assess this claim. The goal was to evaluate the cumulative evidence for “compromise” voice-onset time (VOT) in the speech of early bilinguals by providing a comprehensive assessment of the literature and presenting an acoustic analysis of coronal stops from early Spanish–English bilinguals. The studies were coded for linguistic and methodological features, as well as effect sizes, and then analyzed using a cross-classified Bayesian meta-analysis. The pooled effect for “compromise” VOT was negligible (β = −0.13). The acoustic analysis of the coronal stop data showed that the early Spanish–English bilinguals often produced Spanish and English targets with mismatched features from their other language. These performance mismatches presumably occurred as a result of interlingual interactions elicited by the experimental task. Taken together, the results suggest that early bilinguals do not have “compromise” VOT, though their speech involves dynamic phonetic interactions that can surface as performance mismatches during speech production.

Perceptual discrimination measure of non-native phoneme perception in early and late Spanish-English and Japanese-English bilinguals

This study examined speech discrimination of English vowels /ɑ/ (as in “hot”), /ʌ/ (as in “hut”), and /æ/ (as in “hat”) by non-native English speakers, using an AXB discrimination task. Previous research shows that a person’s first language (L1) changes how speech is perceived in a second learned language (L2). Spanish and Japanese were chosen for this study because both languages share the same five spectrally different vowels, but Japanese additionally distinguishes between short and long versions of those five vowels. L2 proficiency and/or amount of L2 input were used as additional predictor variables. The target populations were early and late Spanish-English bilinguals and early and late Japanese-English bilinguals, which were compared to a control group of monolingual American English speakers. We are currently collecting data and based on previous studies (Shafer et al., under review), we predict: (1) monolinguals and early-bilinguals will show better performance than late-bilinguals; (2) discrimination of /ʌ/ vs. /æ/ contrast will be easier than other contrasts, /ʌ/ vs. /ɑ/ and /ɑ/ vs. /æ/. Our findings will address how L1 spectral-temporal cues and L2 age of acquisition affect L2 speech perception.

Asymmetrical interlingual influence in the production of Spanish and English laterals as a result of competing activation in bilingual language processing

This study examines the phonetic and phonological knowledge of Spanish and English /l/ by early and late Spanish-English bilinguals along a continuum of language dominance. Forty early Spanish-English bilinguals, divided into groups as a function of their immigrant generation (G1.5, G2, G3), and twenty L2 Spanish learners produced word-initial and word-final laterals in three separate sessions: monolingual Spanish session, monolingual English session, and bilingual Spanish/English session. Results indicate that all participants acquired the phonetic and allophonic characteristics of the lateral variants in each language, and that language dominance strongly predicts these bilinguals’ acoustic realization of Spanish and English laterals. The acoustic analyses reveal phonetic convergence as a result of language mode, but it is especially the laterals in the non-dominant language that are altered in bilingual mode. This study provides evidence of language dominance effects on the acoustic realization of Spanish and English laterals, and demonstrates the impact of language mode on the phonetic abilities of early and late bilinguals. It is proposed that a model of bilingual processing based on the principles of episodic frameworks, in which exemplars in a bilingual lexicon develop connections across languages and lexical processing activates the words of both languages non-selectively, can explain these findings.

Making Room for Second Language Phonotactics: Effects of L2 Learning and Environment on First Language Speech Perception.

Language-specific restrictions on sound sequences in words can lead to automatic perceptual repair of illicit sound sequences. As an example, no Spanish words begin with /s/-consonant sequences ([#sC]), and where necessary (e.g., foreign loanwords) [#sC] is repaired by inserting an initial [e], (e.g. foreign loanwords, cf., esnob, from English snob). As a result, Spanish speakers tend to perceive an illusory [e] before [#sC] sequences. Interestingly, this perceptual illusion is weaker in early Spanish-English bilinguals, whose other language, English, allows [#sC]. The present study explored whether this apparent influence of the English language on Spanish is restricted to early bilinguals, whose early language experience includes a mixture of both languages, or whether later learning of second language (L2) English can also induce a weakening of the first language (L1) perceptual illusion. Two groups of late Spanish-English bilinguals, immersed in Spanish or English, were tested on the same Spanish AX (same-different) discrimination task used in a study by Carlson et al., (2016) and their results compared with the Spanish monolinguals from Carlson et al.'s study. Like early bilinguals, late bilinguals exhibited a reduced impact of perceptual prothesis on discrimination accuracy. Additionally, late bilinguals, particularly in English immersion, were slowest when responding against the Spanish perceptual illusion. Robust L1 perceptual illusions thus appear to be malleable in the face of later L2 learning. It is argued that these results are consonant with the need for late bilinguals to navigate alternative, conflicting representations of the same acoustic material, even in unilingual L1 speech perception tasks.

The bilingual language network: Differential involvement of anterior cingulate, basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex in preparation, monitoring, and execution

Research on the neural bases of bilingual language control has largely overlooked the role of preparatory processes, which are central to cognitive control. Additionally, little is known about how the processes involved in global language selection may differ from those involved in the selection of words and morpho-syntactic rules for manipulating them. These processes were examined separately in an fMRI experiment, with an emphasis on understanding how and when general cognitive control regions become activated. Results of region-of-interest analyses on 23 early Spanish-English bilinguals showed that the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) was primarily engaged during the language preparation phase of the task, whereas the left prefrontal (DLPFC) and pre-supplementary motor areas showed increasing activation from preparation to execution. Activation in the basal ganglia (BG), left middle temporal lobe, and right precentral cortical regions did not significantly differ throughout the task. These results suggest that three core cognitive control regions, the ACC, DLPFC, and BG, which have been previously implicated in bilingual language control, engage in distinct neurocognitive processes. Specifically, the results are consistent with the view that the BG “keep track” of the target language in use throughout various levels of language selection, that the ACC is particularly important for top-down target language preparation, and that the left prefrontal cortex is increasingly involved in selection processes from preparation through task execution.

El book or the libro? Insights from acceptability judgments into determiner/noun code-switches

Objectives/research questions: We used two types of acceptability judgments to experimentally test the predictions of two theoretical models of code-switching regarding the surface realization of the determiner in nominal constructions: lexicalist approaches within the Minimalist Program (MP) versus the Bilingual NP Hypothesis within the Matrix Language Frame Model (MLF). Methodology: Two separate groups of 40 early Spanish-English bilinguals evaluated the acceptability of sentences with code-switches between the determiner and the noun that reflected the predictions of the MP model, the MLF, of both or none. The first group rated them on a Likert scale, while the second group performed a two-alternative forced-choice acceptability task (2AFC). Data and analysis: Ratings from the Likert ratings were subjected to an analysis of variance while results from the 2AFC were analyzed using Thurstone’s Law of Comparative Judgment. Conclusions: Both experiments yielded converging evidence supporting the predictions of the MLF. Results from the 2AFC provided a more detailed picture that suggests also a (smaller) contribution of the language of the determiner. Originality: This is the first study to use acceptability judgments to directly contrast the predictions of these major theoretical models regarding switches between determiner and noun. An additional novelty is the use of the 2AFC and Thurstone’s Law of Comparative Judgment, which yielded a more detailed picture than the more commonly used Likert-scale ratings. Implications: Our results provide further support for Eppler, Luescher, and Deuchar’s recent claim that we can only advance our understanding of grammaticality in code-switching if we combine the insights of the different frameworks rather than considering them in isolation.

Vowel reduction patterns of early Spanish- English bilinguals receiving continuous L1 and L2 input

AbstractThis study investigates the production of three morphophonetic variations of schwa in American English: the plural allomorph {-s} as in watches, the possessive allomorph {-s} as in Sasha’s, and word-finally as in Russia. The production of these three allomorphs were examined in Miami’s English monolingual and early Spanish-English bilingual populations. Our purpose was to determine how native-like early Spanish-English bilinguals′ spectral qualities and reduced vowel durations were compared to Miami English monolinguals during a reading task. Results indicate that early bilinguals′ reduced vowels followed the same overall pattern as monolinguals, but had different acoustic properties.

Vowel reduction in word-final position by early and late Spanish-English bilinguals.

Vowel reduction is a prominent feature of American English, as well as other stress-timed languages. As a phonological process, vowel reduction neutralizes multiple vowel quality contrasts in unstressed syllables. For bilinguals whose native language is not characterized by large spectral and durational differences between tonic and atonic vowels, systematically reducing unstressed vowels to the central vowel space can be problematic. Failure to maintain this pattern of stressed-unstressed syllables in American English is one key element that contributes to a “foreign accent” in second language speakers. Reduced vowels, or “schwas,” have also been identified as particularly vulnerable to the co-articulatory effects of adjacent consonants. The current study examined the effects of adjacent sounds on the spectral and temporal qualities of schwa in word-final position. Three groups of English-speaking adults were tested: Miami-based monolingual English speakers, early Spanish-English bilinguals, and late Spanish-English bilinguals. Subjects performed a reading task to examine their schwa productions in fluent speech when schwas were preceded by consonants from various points of articulation. Results indicated that monolingual English and late Spanish-English bilingual groups produced targeted vowel qualities for schwa, whereas early Spanish-English bilinguals lacked homogeneity in their vowel productions. This extends prior claims that schwa is targetless for F2 position for native speakers to highly-proficient bilingual speakers. Though spectral qualities lacked homogeneity for early Spanish-English bilinguals, early bilinguals produced schwas with near native-like vowel duration. In contrast, late bilinguals produced schwas with significantly longer durations than English monolinguals or early Spanish-English bilinguals. Our results suggest that the temporal properties of a language are better integrated into second language phonologies than spectral qualities. Finally, we examined the role of nonstructural variables (e.g. linguistic history measures) in predicting native-like vowel duration. These factors included: Age of L2 learning, amount of L1 use, and self-reported bilingual dominance. Our results suggested that different sociolinguistic factors predicted native-like reduced vowel duration than predicted native-like vowel qualities across multiple phonetic environments.

Constructing two phonological systems: A phonetic analysis of /p/, /t/, /k/ among early Spanish–English bilingual speakers

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: Many early Spanish-English bilingual speakers in the USA learn Spanish as their first language at home and English in school. This paper seeks to elucidate whether these speakers develop a separate phonological system for English and, if so, the role of primary and secondary cues in the development of the second language (L2) system. Design/methodology/approach: The phonetic realization of the voiceless stops /p/, /t/, /k/ is analyzed among three groups: early Spanish-English bilinguals; L1 English speakers who are late learners of Spanish; and L1 Spanish speakers who are late learners of English. The participants ( N = 15) engaged in a reading task and a conversation task in each language during a single recording session. Data and analysis: 1578 tokens of /p/, /t/, /k/ were extracted and analyzed using acoustic software. Voice onset time in milliseconds and center of gravity in Hertz were analyzed, and monofactorial and multifactorial analyses were performed to determine the role of linguistic background. Findings/conclusions: Evidence is found of two phonological systems among early bilingual speakers, with varying degrees of assimilation to the phonological systems of the native speakers of each language. Originality: We argue that early bilinguals construct their L2 system of /p/, /t/, /k/ in English based on the primary cue of voice onset time rather than the secondary cue of center of gravity, as they are accustomed to noticing differences in voice onset time in Spanish and because the center of gravity of /p/, /t/, /k/ in English is more variable than voice onset time, and therefore represents a more variable and less predictable cue for early bilinguals as they construct their L2 system. Significance/implications: This paper contributes to the literature on the construction of phonological systems and to research detailing the speech of early Spanish-English bilinguals.

Speech sound learning depends on individuals' ability, not just experience.

The goal of this study was to investigate if phonetic experience with two languages facilitated the learning of novel speech sounds or if general perceptual abilities independent of bilingualism played a role in this learning. The underlying neural mechanisms involved in novel speech sound learning were observed in groups of English monolinguals (n = 20), early Spanish-English bilinguals (n = 24), and experimentally derived subgroups of individuals with advanced ability to learn novel speech sound contrasts (ALs, n = 28) and individuals with non-advanced ability to learn novel speech sound contrasts (non-ALs, n = 16). Subjects participated in four consecutive sessions of phonetic training in which they listened to novel speech sounds embedded in Hungarian pseudowords. Participants completed two fMRI sessions, one before training and another one after training. While in the scanner, participants passively listened to the speech stimuli presented during training. A repeated measures behavioral analysis and ANOVA for fMRI data were conducted to investigate learning after training. The results showed that bilinguals did not significantly differ from monolinguals in the learning of novel sounds behaviorally. Instead, the behavioral results revealed that regardless of language group (monolingual or bilingual), ALs were better at discriminating pseudowords throughout the training than non-ALs. Neurally, region of interest (ROI) analysis showed increased activity in the superior temporal gyrus (STG) bilaterally in ALs relative to non-ALs after training. Bilinguals also showed greater STG activity than monolinguals. Extracted values from ROIs entered into a 2×2 MANOVA showed a main effect of performance, demonstrating that individual ability exerts a significant effect on learning novel speech sounds. In fact, advanced ability to learn novel speech sound contrasts appears to play a more significant role in speech sound learning than experience with two phonological systems.

On-line relative clause attachment strategy in heritage speakers of Spanish

Aims: Previous research on relative clause attachment has found that late Spanish–English bilinguals tend to parse both languages with a single strategy that is consistent with that of the language in which they are currently immersed. One recent investigation using an off-line measure has suggested that the same may not be true of early Spanish–English bilinguals, who did not show effects of greater exposure to English in the comprehension of ambiguous relative clauses (RCs). The present study sought to determine whether on-line RC attachment behavior in heritage Spanish was similarly unaffected by extensive exposure to English. Design: Forty-six monolinguals and 28 heritage speakers of Mexican Spanish participated in a self-paced reading experiment in which stimuli contained temporarily ambiguous relative clauses that were biased toward either high or low syntactic attachment. Data and analysis: Analysis of variance by subject and by item was performed on reading time data and on responses to post-stimulus comprehension questions. Findings: Statistical analyses revealed similar preferences for high attachment in Spanish among both monolinguals and heritage speakers. Originality: These results suggest that Spanish heritage speakers, as early bilinguals, may be less affected by ongoing exposure to English than the late bilinguals tested in prior studies. Significance: The outcome also suggests that, within Spanish as a heritage language, relative clause attachment may be unique compared to other aspects of sentence processing in that it shows little influence from English.

Language proficiency, context influence foreign-accent adaptation

Listeners adapt quickly to changes in accent (Bradlow & Bent, 2003; Clarke & Garrett, 2004; inter alia). The cause of this brief delay may be due to the cost of processing accented speech, or may reflect a surprise effect associated with task expectations (Floccia et al., 2009). The present study examines a link between accent familiarity and processing delays with listeners who have varying degrees of familiarity with target languages: monolingual Texans with little or no formal exposure to Spanish, early Spanish-English bilinguals, and Korean learners of English. Participants heard four blocks of English sentences—Blocks 1 and 4 were produced by two native speakers of American English, and Blocks 2 and 3 were produced by native speakers of Spanish or Korean- and responded to written probe words. All listener groups responded more slowly after an accent change; however, the degree of delay varied with language proficiency. L1 Korean listeners were less delayed by Korean-accented speech than the other listeners, while changes to Spanish-accented speech were processed most slowly by Spanish-English bilinguals. The results suggest that adaptation to foreign-accented speech depends on language familiarity and task expectations. The processing delays are analyzed in light of intelligibility and accentedness measures.

Age of acquisition and allophony in Spanish-English bilinguals.

This study examines age of acquisition (AoA) in Spanish-English bilinguals’ phonetic and phonological knowledge of /l/ in English and Spanish. In English, the lateral approximant /l/ varies in darkness by context [based on the second formant (F2) and the difference between F2 and the first formant (F1)], but the Spanish /l/ does not. Further, English /l/ is overall darker than Spanish /l/. Thirty-eight college-aged adults participated: 11 Early Spanish-English bilinguals who learned English before the age of 5 years, 14 Late Spanish-English bilinguals who learned English after the age of 6 years, and 13 English monolinguals. Participants’ /l/ productions were acoustically analyzed by language and context. The results revealed a Spanish-to-English phonetic influence on /l/ productions for both Early and Late bilinguals, as well as an English-to-Spanish phonological influence on the patterning of /l/ for the Late Bilinguals. These findings are discussed in terms of the Speech Learning Model and the effect of AoA on the interaction between a bilingual speaker’s two languages.

Cross language speech-in-noise perception by early Spanish-English bilinguals and English monolinguals

Bilinguals have shown a hyper-awareness of fine phonetic detail in speech, while also sometimes losing out on higher-level syntactic and semantic information in speech-in-noise studies. This study seeks to determine how bilinguals process speech in noisy environments across different language contexts. Specifically, this study tests whether bilinguals utilize certain phonetic cues to access higher-level information. Two experiments will be conducted. First, to determine how bilinguals process speech in noise in different language contexts, early Spanish-English bilinguals and English monolinguals learning Spanish listened to sentences mixed with white noise in English, Spanish, and code-switching (English to Spanish and Spanish to English) contexts. Preliminary results suggest early Spanish-English bilinguals perform significantly above chance on word identification in all contexts, performing best in the Spanish context. The second experiment will determine specifically which noise types (lower versus higher frequency) are most detrimental to word identification. This in turn will suggest what kind of phonetic information is utilized most by bilinguals versus monolinguals. These results will aid our understanding of how bilinguals could use their hyper-awareness of phonetic detail to overcome difficulties in other aspects of processing.

Acoustic cue weighting in perception and production of English and Spanish

We present data quantifying the use of multiple acoustic dimensions in the perception and production of word-initial stops in Spanish and English in bilinguals and monolinguals, with a focus on the stability of individuals’ cue weighting strategies across languages and modalities. Early Spanish-English bilinguals who use both languages on a regular basis, along with control groups of monolingual Spanish and English speakers, categorized stop-initial CV syllables covarying in Voice Onset Time (VOT), fundamental frequency at vowel onset (f0), first formant onset frequency (F1), and stop closure duration. Individual perceptual cue weights were calculated via logistic regression, and these weights were compared with the same speakers’ use of the corresponding acoustic dimensions in their productions of the stop contrast. Preliminary results suggest that bilingual listeners’ perceptual cue weighting strategies correspond across Spanish and English; that is, individuals who weight a given cue more heavily than average in English also weight that cue heavily in Spanish. However, in line with previous work, correspondences between a given individual's use of the acoustic dimensions across perception and production are more elusive.

Cognitive advantages and disadvantages in early and late bilinguals.

Previous research has documented advantages and disadvantages of early bilinguals, defined as learning a 2nd language by school age and using both languages since that time. Relative to monolinguals, early bilinguals manifest deficits in lexical access but benefits in executive function. We investigated whether becoming bilingual after childhood (late bilinguals) can produce the cognitive advantages and disadvantages typical of early bilinguals. Participants were 30 monolingual English speakers, 30 late English-Spanish bilinguals, and 30 early Spanish-English bilinguals who completed a picture naming task (lexical access) and an attentional network task (executive function). Late and early bilinguals manifested equivalent cognitive effects in both tasks, demonstrating lexical access deficits and executive function benefits. These findings provide support for the hypothesis that cognitive effects associated with bilingualism arise as the result of proficient, habitual use of 2 languages and not of developmental changes associated with becoming bilingual during childhood.

Attentional control in early and later bilingual children

We examined differences in attentional control among school-age children who were monolingual English speakers, early Spanish-English bilinguals (who began speaking both languages by age 3), and later Spanish-English bilingual children (who began speaking English after age 3). Children's attentional control was tested using the Attention Network Test (ANT). All language groups performed equally on ANT networks; however, when controlling for age and verbal ability, groups differed significantly on reaction time. Early bilingual children responded faster on the ANT compared to both monolingual and later bilingual children, suggesting an attentional monitoring advantage for early bilinguals. These results add to evidence of advantaged cognitive functioning among bilinguals and are consistent with the possibility that children who begin speaking a second language earlier in childhood have greater advantages, due either to effects of acquiring a second language earlier or to longer duration of bilingual experience.

WHO WAS WALKING ON THE BEACH?

The position of antecedent strategy (Carminati, 2002) claims that speakers of null-subject languages prefer to resolve intrasentential anaphora by linkingproto an antecedent in the specifier of the inflection phrase and the overt pronoun to an antecedent lower in the clause. The present study has two aims: (a) to determine whether adult early Spanish-English bilinguals (Spanish heritage speakers) and late English-Spanish bilinguals (adult second language [L2] learners of Spanish) utilize the same antecedent assignment strategies as monolingually raised Spanish speakers, and (b) to determine whether early exposure to and use of Spanish confers advantages to Spanish heritage speakers relative to L2 learners. Spanish speakers raised without English contact (n= 19), Spanish heritage speakers (n= 25), and L2 learners of Spanish (n= 19) completed an offline questionnaire that comprised complex sentences such asJuan vio a Carlos mientraspro/él caminaba en la playa“John saw Charles while he was walking on the beach.” Comprehension questions probed participants’ preferences regarding the antecedent of null and overt pronouns. The results indicate that the monolingually raised Spanish speakers showed an antecedent bias, but the heritage speakers and the L2 learners did not. Furthermore, the two groups of bilinguals differed from the controls in different ways: The heritage speakers displayed a stronger subject bias for the overt pronoun, whereas the L2 learners did not exhibit any clear antecedent biases.