Early Social Interactions Research Articles

Gaze aversion during social interaction in preterm infants: A function of attention skills?

Preterm infants avert their gaze more often and for longer periods in early social interactions compared to full term infants. In previous studies this finding is interpreted as being a function of the higher degree of parental stimulation that is often found in parents of preterm children. The current study explores an additional hypothesis. Since the development of general visual attention abilities is found to be less optimal in preterm children, it is possible that less optimal maturation of attention abilities partially explains the elevated gaze aversion in a social context. Therefore, the current study investigated the association between gaze aversion in a social context and the ability to disengage and shift visual attention in a non-social context in 20 preterm and 42 full term infants aged 4 and 6 months. Results confirm that preterm infants are slower to shift their attention in a non-social context and that they avert their gaze more often in a social context compared to full term children. Furthermore, more frequent gaze aversion during social interaction at 6 months was related to longer disengagement and the shifting of attention at 4 and 6 months, but only within the preterm group. The results suggest that attention maturation is less optimal in preterm children; this can be observed in a non-social as well as a social context. Less attention maturation in preterm children can negatively influence the amount of time they can stay actively involved in social interaction.

Early memories, object relations, and current relationship functioning

This study examined the relationship between dependency themes in 140 inpatients' early childhood memories (EM) and social interactions involving dependent behavior. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that the type of dependent EM predicted overt behavior above and beyond demographic and diagnostic categories. Patients expressing clinging dependent themes in their narratives had greater involvement in social activities in the therapeutic community program and with nurses, whereas patients expressing counterdependent themes engaged in more hostile interactions with nursing staff members, were more self-destructive, and had more emergency department admissions over the course of inpatient treatment. Results are considered in light of the clinical utility of EMs.

Selective Visual Attention at Twelve Months: Signs of Autism in Early Social Interactions

We examined social attention and attention shifting during (a) a play interaction between 12-month olds and an examiner and (b) after the examiner pretended to hurt herself. We coded the target and duration of infants' visual fixations and frequency of attention shifts. Siblings of children with autism and controls with no family history of autism were tested at 12months and screened for ASD at 36months. Groups did not differ on proportion of attention to social stimuli or attention shifting during the play condition. All groups demonstrated more social attention and attention shifting during the distress condition. Infants later diagnosed with ASD tended to continue looking at a toy during the distress condition despite the salience of social information.

The Relationship Between Parents’ and Children’s Automatic Thoughts in a College Student Sample

Research demonstrates the importance of early social interactions in the development of schemas and automatic thoughts. It does not appear, however, that the existing research examines intergenerational correlations in automatic thoughts. As a result, this study explores the relationship between the automatic thoughts of parents and those of their college-age children in a sample of 252 college students and their mothers and fathers. Results of this study suggest that there are significant relationships between parents' and college students' positive automatic thoughts. Different trends by gender also are noted in the relationships among variables for male and female college students with their mothers and fathers. Further, mothers' positive ATs predicted the positive ATs of their college students, with mothers' ratings of their own communication with their college students mediating partially this relationship. Finally, college students' anxiety and self-esteem is predicted significantly by their mothers' anxiety and self-esteem (respectively) as well as their own positive and negative ATs. These findings suggest the possibility that ATs play a role in the intergenerational transmission of certain domains of psychological functioning.

Touching behaviors of infants of depressed mothers during normal and perturbed interactions

The present study investigated the touching behaviors of 4-month-old infants of depressed and non-depressed mothers during the still-face (SF; maternal emotional unavailability) and separation (SP; maternal physical unavailability) procedures. Forty-one dyads participated in the present study; dyads were from low SES backgrounds and they exhibited poor relationship qualities (e.g. poor maternal sensitivity, low infant responsiveness); thus, they were considered at-risk. Results indicated that infants exhibited more patting and pulling when mothers were unavailable during the SF and SP procedures. Moreover, depression affected infants’ tactile behaviors: infants of depressed mothers used more reactive types of touch (i.e. active touching behaviors, such as grab, pat, pull) than infants of non-depressed mothers during emotional and physical unavailability, suggesting greater activity levels in infants of depressed mothers. Negative relationship indicators, such as maternal intrusiveness and hostility, predicted soothing/regulatory (i.e. nurturing) and reactive/regulatory types of touch, even after controlling for maternal depression. Taken together, these results underscore the importance of touch for infant communication and regulation during early social interactions.

Constructing culture in cowbirds (Molothrus ater).

In past work, the authors produced divergent patterns of courtship and communication in juvenile male cowbirds (Molothrus ater) by providing them with different social experiences during their 1st year. Here the authors determined whether these different social patterns could be transmitted to new generations of juvenile males. In Experiment 1, the authors exposed groups of juveniles to adult males who differed in the amount of male-male competition they produced. In Experiment 2, they gave groups of juveniles either social access to adult males or only visual and acoustic access to those males. In both experiments, juvenile males developed patterns of courtship and competition similar to those expressed by the adult males with whom they had social contact. The juveniles never had the opportunity to observe some of the adults' behaviors that they came to replicate. This suggests that the role of the adults was to establish the social structure in the groups, modifying juveniles' early social interactions. Juveniles were then "cultured" within these different learning environments, constructing social behavior similar to the adult males' behavior in their 1st year.

Editorial

Editorial

Relationship between male infants' vocal responses to mother and stranger at three months and self-reported academic attainment and adjustment measures in adulthood.

This study explored whether 3-mo.-old male infants' differential vocal response to mother vs a female stranger, which has been related to cognitive and academic functioning up to 12 years of age, is also related to adult development. Of the 12 subjects who had been seen from infancy through 12 years, 10 were located at Ages 21 and 28 years and were asked about their high school grade point average, scores on the SAT, years of schooling, emotional adjustment, substance abuse, and if they were in a stable relationship by the age 28. Responses showed 3-mo.-olds' differential vocal response was related positively to high school grade point average, scores on the SAT, years of completed education by age 28, and stability of relationship by age 28, and negatively related to substance abuse. No relationship was found between differential vocal response and reported emotional problems. Results suggest that early infant social interactions may be linked to adult development or adjustment.

Early Maternal and Child Influences on Children's Later Independent Cognitive and Social Functioning

The present study examined whether parenting and child characteristics of 2- and 3 1/2-year-old children had common paths of influence on their 4 1/2-year independent cognitive and social functioning. Structural equation modeling was guided by hypotheses that assumed children's later independence is facilitated by specialized parental support in early social interactions. To address the importance of variability in early development for understanding children's later independence, we included 104 term and 185 preterm children, as they are known to differ in early skills. As predicted, mothers' maintaining of children's interests indirectly supported 4 1/2-year cognitive and social independence through a direct, positive influence on 2- and 3 1/2-year skills. Directiveness positively supported children's early cognitive and responsiveness skills but by 3 1/2 years, high levels of this behavior had a direct, negative influence on their cognitive and social independence at 4 1/2 years. Whereas high levels of maintaining interests across these ages support later independence, directiveness needs to decrease in relation to children's increasing competencies. Results support a theoretical framework that emphasizes the importance of the social context for understanding the origins of children's later independent functioning.

Play is indispensable for an adequate development of coping with social challenges in the rat

In this study, young rats were deprived of early social interactions during weeks 4 and 5 of life. Different behavioral tests were conducted in adulthood to study the behavioral responses of rats lacking early social experiences. Juvenile deprivation resulted in decreased social activity and an altered sexual pattern, but did not affect locomotor activity or the performance in the elevated plus maze. Furthermore, behavioral and neuroendocrine responses of juvenile isolated rats were dramatically altered when they were confronted with territorial aggression. Juvenile deprived rats did not readily display a submissive posture in response to the resident and showed no immobility behavior after being returned to the resident's territory, while their plasma corticosterone and adrenaline concentrations were significantly increased compared to nonisolated controls. In contrast, behavioral responses in the shock prod test were not affected by previous isolation. The results suggest that early social experiences are vital for interactions with conspecifics later in life, i.e., aggression, sexual, and social interactions.

Play is indispensable for an adequate development of coping with social challenges in the rat

In this study, young rats were deprived of early social interactions during weeks 4 and 5 of life. Different behavioral tests were conducted in adulthood to study the behavioral responses of rats lacking early social experiences. Juvenile deprivation resulted in decreased social activity and an altered sexual pattern, but did not affect locomotor activity or the performance in the elevated plus maze. Furthermore, behavioral and neuroendocrine responses of juvenile isolated rats were dramatically altered when they were confronted with territorial aggression. Juvenile deprived rats did not readily display a submissive posture in response to the resident and showed no immobility behavior after being returned to the resident's territory, while their plasma corticosterone and adrenaline concentrations were significantly increased compared to nonisolated controls. In contrast, behavioral responses in the shock prod test were not affected by previous isolation. The results suggest that early social experiences are vital for interactions with conspecifics later in life, i.e., aggression, sexual, and social interactions. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Dev Psychobiol 34: 129–138, 1999

Individual differences in children's developing theory of mind and implications for metacognition

For readers interested in metacognition broadly, this review article introduces some of the recent research and theory concerning children's developing understanding of mental states, focusing particularly on attempts to understand individual differences in development. We contend that the conceptual developments investigated by “theory of mind” researchers constitute a foundation for later metacognition. We examine studies that have focused on individual differences in children's developing understanding of mental states, particularly those investigating its antecedents in early social interactions. Implications from theory-of-mind research for an understanding of metacognition are articulated.

The development of littermate preferences in juvenile Belding's ground squirrels

Abstract. Kin favouritism has been documented widely in free-living ground squirrels (genus Spermophilus), but the development of kin favouritism has not been explained. To investigate the development of littermate preferences in captive Belding's ground squirrels, S. beldingi, groups composed of four dams and 16 juveniles (young-of-the-year) were observed in outdoor enclosures for a period of 5-11 days, beginning when juveniles first emerged aboveground from natal burrows (buried nestboxes). Social play was the most frequently observed social interaction. Littermates played together about twice as often as non-littermates on a per pair basis and juveniles were also more likely to share a burrow at night with their littermates than non-littermates. Independently of relatedness, the sex of a pair also affected play-bout frequencies (m-m>m-f>f-f), as did body-weight differences between juveniles. It was concluded that juveniles displayed social preferences for littermates shortly after they emerged from natal burrows, which suggests that interactions between littermates prior to or just after emergence affected the development of social preferences. Dams indirectly affected the development of social preferences: when dams were not placed in enclosures littermate preferences were not observed. The results of this study support the hypothesis that kin favouritism develops from early social interactions involving dams and littermates. However, it remains to be determined whether the preferences manifested by recently emerged juveniles are maintained throughout the summer and whether such preferences provide the foundation for kin favouritism in adults.

A mouse model of early social interactions after prenatal drug exposure: a genetic investigation

The aim of the present study was to (i) characterise the mouse behavioural profile (particularly social interactions) during the preweaning period, (ii) assess the effects of prenatal exposure to an anticonvulsant drug widely used in clinical practice, (iii) examine possible genetic differences both in baseline behavioural profiles and in sensitivity to drug-induced effects. Following a balanced intra-strain fostering procedure, the offspring of C57BL/6J and CBA inbred mouse strains from mothers exposed during pregnancy to either phenobarbitone (PHB, 60 mg/kg) or vehicle (VEH) given intraperitoneally (IP) during days 10-16 of gestation, were observed for early social interactions in the home cage during the last part of the preweaning period (days 20 and 21). The behavioural repertoires of the two strains differed markedly, in that C57 pups were more involved in Play soliciting, Locomotor-rotational play, and in Maintenance activities, while CBA mice spent much more time being inactive or exploring the environment. C57 and CBA mice also differed in the sensitivity to PHB exposure. On the whole, time spent in Investigative/Affiliative behaviours was increased, while the frequency of Play soliciting patterns was reduced in PHB-treated mice. The treatment of the fostering mother had only negligible effects, suggesting that PHB-induced changes in behaviour were largely due to direct effects of the substance on the foetus. These results indicate that specific items of the preweaning behavioural profile, and particularly social interactions, are influenced by early PHB exposure, and that the responses are heavily affected by the genotype.

Assessing emergent literacy in preschool classrooms

Recent research on the literacy development of children during the preschool years has emphasized the notion of “emergent literacy,” according to authors Kontos (1986) and Teale and Sulzby (1986). According to this view, preschool children learn about reading and writing as they participate in a literate culture. Early social interactions involving print are crucial to children's reading and writing development, according to the Early Childhood and Literacy Development Committee (1986).

The influence of early social interactions on post-weaning growth in piglets

The influence of early social interactions on post-weaning growth in piglets

Social dominance and body size in Atlantic salmon parr, Salmo solar L.

Dominance relationships between pairs of Atlantic salmon parr of known size were assessed at various times during their first year of life. In tests conducted between first feeding and early July, the larger of two fish was dominant in only 54% of pairs, regardless of the magnitude of the size difference between the fish. In September, there was a stronger association between size and status, especially in pairs with a large size differential, where the dominant was larger in 72% of cases. In groups of parr tested in April of the following year, there was no relationship between size and status, the larger of two fish being dominant in 48% of cases, regardless of the magnitude of the size differential. This result suggests that status in early social interactions may depend on behavioural properties rather than size and that the larger size of dominant fish reported in a number of salmonids might be a consequence and not a cause of high status.

Culture and early social interactions. The example of mother-infant object play in African and native French Families

Data from cross-cultural studies on parental behaviour during early social interaction suggest that structural and universal features should be differentiated from culturally specific ones. No direct relations can be assumed to exist between specific forms of child rearing and development of skills in the child. However child rearing practices can have long term effects and affect social behaviours.

Patterns of maternal and infant imitation during play

In contrast to recent experimental studies that have sought to establish the infant's ability to imitate, the goal of the current study was to establish the actual performance of imitation by infants and their mothers during episodes of face-to-face play. Three-min play episodes of 20 mothers and their 13- to 16-week-old infants were videotaped. Instances of mouth openings, lip movements, tongue protrusions, smiling, and vocalizations by both partners were coded. Sequential analyses revealed stochastic patterns of imitation by both interactants. Mothers contingently imitated initiations by their infants and were more likely to make like initiations during action in the same category by their infants. Infants did not show onset-to-onset imitation but did show an increased likelihood to initiate actions when their mothers were engaged in a like action. That imitation by the mother is a pervasive characteristic of such interactions is consistent with earlier suggestions of its role in the acquisition of social and emotional skills. The results suggest that infants also display patterns of matching in early social interactions.

Sex preferences in sociometric choices.

Sex biases in children's sociometric preferences were examined developmentally using rating-scale data from 195 girls and 191 boys in kindergarten through the third grade (Study 1) and from 91 girls and 88 boys in the third through sixth grades (Study 2). Results of both studies indicated that children at each grade level rated opposite-sex classmates significantly lower than same-sex classmates. Furthermore, there was a significant linear trend for children's sex biases to increase with age, with this trend being particularly pronounced in the younger grades (i.e., kindergarten to Grade 3). Specifically, children received significantly lower ratings from opposite-sex peers in Grade 3 than they received in kindergarten, Grade 1, and Grade 2. Results are discussed in terms of future research in the area of sociometric assessment. For over 50 years, researchers have recognized the existence of a sex cleavage in children's peer interactions, emerging as early as the toddler and preschool years. For example, toddlers and preschoolers direct more social behavior and reinforcement to same-sex peers (Fagot & Patterson, 1969; LaFreniere, Strayer, & Gauthier, 1984) and orient their bodies farther away from cross-sex peers (Wasserman & Stern, 1978). Although the intensity of this sex-differentiated behavior may vary as a function of school setting and program variables (Bianchi & Bakeman, 1978), it nevertheless appears that, even without adult interference, children's early social interactions are highly sex biased. It is also generally believed that behavioral segregation of the sexes increases during the elementary school years, reaching its peak in early adolescence. Schofield (1981) has suggested that it is not that young adolescents do not see heterosexuality as the appropriate sexual orientation, but rather that they believe they have few interests to share as friends with members of the opposite sex. Other researchers cite differential rates of maturity (Campbell, 1939), encouragement from parents (Lewis, Young, Brooks, & Michalson, 1975), teachers (Fagot, 1977) and peers (Lamb & Roopnarine, 1979) for sex-appropriate play and activities, and behavioral incompatibilities in the games children play (Lever, 1976) as factors underlying the development of the sex cleavage. Observational studies, however, provide us with limited information regarding the way in which children themselves view their same-sex and cross-sex interpersonal relations. In this regard, sociometric methodology, designed to assess peer attraction and preference or liking within a specified group, is partic