Early Reading Intervention Research Articles

Supplemental Reading Help for Kindergarten Students: How Early Should You Start?

ABSTRACT Substantial research supports the need for early intervention efforts for students at risk for failure. Despite the empirically documented importance of early, explicit reading intervention for students who enter school without critical prereading skills, many kindergarten programs delay intensive reading instruction until later in the year. Instead, during the 1st months or semester of kindergarten the emphasis is on teaching readiness skills. The authors compared the progress of kindergarten students who received small-group reading intervention across the full school year with those who began the same intervention midyear. Students with a full year of intervention outperformed those who had only a half year of intervention. Because of the concerns about starting a structured and intensive intervention for students who are transitioning to kindergarten, the authors offer suggestions for helping to address some important readiness skills while providing early reading intervention.

Reading and School Completion: Critical Connections and Matthew Effects

This article argues that reading interventions are a key dropout prevention strategy. A review of the literature connects reading skills and interventions with events such as grade retention, placement in special education, and high school dropout. In general, data indicate that intensive early interventions positively affect students' reading skills, resulting in lower rates of grade retention, reduced incidence of placement in special education, and higher rates of high school completion. Difficulties with reading may interfere with students' motivation and engagement at school and with learning. The article presents an integrated model describing spiraling, or Matthew, effects across reading competence, student engagement and motivation, and eventual high school completion or dropout. Finally, it describes a student engagement intervention, Check & Connect, along with a rationale for combining student engagement and early reading interventions to promote school completion among youth.

Early Reading Intervention: Responding to the Learning Needs of Young at-Risk English Language Learners

This study examined the effects of a supplemental early reading intervention on the beginning literacy skills of 12 kindergarten/first-grade urban English language learners (ELLs). The Early Reading Intervention (ERI; Simmons & Kame'enui, 2003) was the instructional intervention used with all students. A multiple-baseline design across students was used to investigate the effects of the instruction on phoneme segmentation fluency (PSF) and nonsense word fluency (NWF), as measured by the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS; Good & Kaminski, 2002). Data analyses showed that all students increased in the number of phonemes segmented and the number of letter sounds produced correctly. Gains were commensurate with the amount of instruction received.

Brief experimental analysis of early reading interventions

The purpose of this study was to investigate how brief experimental analyses (BEAs) could be used to identify effective interventions for Kindergartners (2 girls and 2 boys, 5 years and 7–10 months old) with low performance and/or growth slope in letter sound fluency (LSF). Interventions were tested within a multielement design with brief mini-reversals until an intervention yielding at least 20% improvement on a specific subskill measure or a curriculum-based measure of LSF was identified. BEA-identified interventions were implemented one-on-one for 5 to 9 weeks. A multiple-baseline design across participants showed large intervention effects (average adjusted d = 2.4) on general outcome measures, supporting treatment validity of BEAs. Findings extend the BEA literature to younger participants, early reading interventions, and early reading measures.

Response to Early Reading Intervention Examining Higher and Lower Responders

This study examined the effects of an intensive reading intervention for students demonstrating minimal response to previous, less intensive intervention. Participants received intervention for 13 to 26 weeks in first grade. In second grade, students were screened and those meeting the benchmark (higher responders) did not receive further intervention, whereas those who did not meet benchmark (lower responders) received an additional 26 weeks of a more intensive intervention. Using a regression-discontinuity design, lower and higher responders were compared on several measures of reading. Significant findings for reading comprehension and word reading were demonstrated in favor of the lower responder group. No significant results were shown for reading fluency. Teachers' perspectives of the lower responders' academic competence were significantly lower than those of higher responders.

Early Comprehension Instruction for Spanish–Speaking English Language Learners: Teaching Text–Level Reading Skills While Maintaining Effects on Word–Level Skills

This study investigated the effects of three instructional conditions on precursors to successful reading for Spanish–speaking English language learners (ELL). The study was conducted using a randomized, alternate treatment control group design specifically targeting phonological awareness (PA) listening comprehension (LC), and decoding in a sample of ELL ( N= 82) including students who were and were not at risk for later reading failure. Two randomly assigned experimental intervention groups and one treatment control group were created to test the effectiveness of three instructional interventions that differed in the relative amount of time used for instructing the word– and text–level targeted skills. Specifically, the two experimental intervention groups received different doses of LC relative to PA instruction, creating a LC Concentration group and a PA Concentration group. The treatment control group received only PA and alphabet knowledge instruction (word–level skills). Results indicated that both at–risk and not–at–risk ELLs in the LC Concentration group outperformed students in the other groups on almost all measures, including PA skills, despite minimal amounts of instructional time–targeting word–level skills. These data extend the existing literature by lending empirical support to the use of a LC component in early reading interventions for young ELL.

Responsiveness of Students With Language Difficulties to Early Intervention in Reading

For children with language challenges, little is known about effective early reading interventions, because most studies have used language scores as exclusionary criteria. We randomly assigned 78 kindergartners with poor language skills to small group reading interventions that included phonemic awareness, alphabetic understanding, and oral language. The groups began in September or mid-February. Nearly half the students were English learners. MANOVA between these groups found that earlier intervention led to significantly better outcomes than the same interventions begun later in kindergarten. We found similar rates of growth between students who were English only or English learners. Twice as many students in the immediate as in the delayed treatment scored in the average range at the end of the year. Pretests did not predict who would be a good or poor responder to the treatments; however, January scores in letter knowledge and phonemic awareness were reliably different for good and poor responders.

The impact of early reading interventions delivered by classroom assistants on attainment at the end of Year 2

Previous research has shown that training teaching assistants to deliver early phonic reading interventions can have measurable effects at immediate post‐test. This study explored whether the effects of interventions delivered by classroom assistants (CAs) were still evident at the end of the first phase of schooling, 16 months after the early intervention finished. Children were divided into ‘treatment responder’ and ‘treatment non‐responder’ groups based upon post‐test decoding skills. The treatment responder group was significantly more likely to achieve average results in nationally administered tests (end of Key Stage 1 tests) and teacher ratings of attainment than the treatment non‐responders. Treatment responders were indistinguishable from national averages on the mathematics test, writing test and reading task performance, but differed on reading comprehension test and on teacher‐assessed attainment. Gains in reading delivered following early phonic reading interventions delivered by CAs are maintained for many children. Non‐responders and treatment responders with only modest decoding skill may require additional support to achieve national targets in literacy.

Examining the Impacts of Early Reading Intervention on the Growth Rates in Basic Literacy Skills of At-Risk Urban Kindergarteners

This study investigated the effects of the Scott Foresman Early Reading Intervention (ERI) on growth rates in the early literacy skills of urban at-risk kindergarten students. Students participated in one of three groups: treatment-intensive/ strategic, treatment-benchmark, and nontreatment-benchmark. Treatment group students received a 30-minute ERI program from classroom teachers 3 days a week for 5 to 14 weeks. Using multivariate analysis of variance and the hierarchical linear model, the authors compared students' benchmark and progress monitoring scores on the Phoneme Segmentation Fluency (PSF) and Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF) subtests of the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Literacy Skills™. Results indicated that PSF and NWF benchmark performance gaps decreased between the treatment-intensive/ strategic and nontreatment-benchmark groups, indicating beneficial effects for the ERI. Additionally, the PSF and NWF progress monitoring growth rates of treatment group students during the ERI program were significantly higher than rates before treatment. Implications of early reading interventions for urban at-risk students are discussed.

Early Intervention in Reading

This study documents the implementation of research-based strategies to minimize the occurrence of reading difficulties in a first-grade population. Three strategies were implemented: (a) A system of progress monitoring was used to assess student progress and skill acquisition; (b) instruction was characterized by high intensity through the use of groups with a low student–teacher ratio; and (c) an explicit instructional approach was used for children who lacked phonemic awareness or an understanding of the alphabetic principle. Furthermore, teachers were supported in working collaboratively with one another and were provided with ongoing support from a literacy coach. Ninety percent of participants met or exceeded grade-level expectations by the end of the year, and 75% of treatment resisters were eligible for special education. Challenges related to implementation are discussed.

Effects of Supplemental Early Reading Intervention at 2-Year Follow Up: Reading Skill Growth Patterns and Predictors

This study examined the long-term growth of reading skills following 1 year of supplemental 1st-grade code-oriented intervention provided by paraeducators. A group of 79 1st graders with reading skills averaging in the lowest quartile received explicit alphabetic and decoding instruction and were assessed postintervention and at 1-year intervals through the end of 3rd grade. Growth model results indicate that students continued to benefit from 1st-grade intervention through the end of 3rd grade, with average performance near 50th percentile on decoding and reading fluency, near 40th percentile on word reading and comprehension, and near 30th percentile on spelling. Without exception, both receptive language and rapid automatized naming uniquely predicted 3rd-grade outcomes. Of the students remaining in study in fall of 2nd grade, a subgroup selected by their teachers received additional supplemental instruction. Students referred for added intervention continued to perform significantly lower than those more readily remediated with 1st-grade intervention alone.

Early Reading Intervention for Urban Learners: Implications for Practice

In this article the authors review the reading status of urban learners and examine the role of phonemic awareness in reading acquisition. Their review indicates that phonemic awareness alone is not sufficient for reading acquisition, and that phonemic awareness in combination with alphabetic principle is needed to promote reading competence. The article reports existing findings on phonemic awareness and alphabetic principle as they relate to outcomes for urban learners. Because one of the greatest challenges in today's schools is putting research-based reading instruction into practice, a challenge greatly multiplied in urban settings, this article provides a focused discussion of practical implications for teachers, educators, and administrators.

A Survey of Training, Practice, and Competence in Reading Assessment and Intervention

Data were gathered from 496 practicing school psychologists regarding perceptions of their preparation, ability, and use of research-based techniques in reading assessment and intervention. The survey consisted mainly of items from a survey by Fish and Margolis (1988), but items were added based on research advances in the field. Nearly half of those surveyed were not required to take a class specific to reading. Despite a desire to be more involved in early reading intervention, self-reported knowledge of evidence-based reading interventions was low. A considerable portion of participants also reported low knowledge and use of research-based reading assessment techniques. Over 90% reported that more training in reading assessment and intervention would be beneficial for them as practitioners. Results are discussed relative to historical roles, current service delivery reformulations, and the school psychologist's role in future professional activities, particularly within a response to intervention model.

Long‐term outcomes of early reading intervention

This study explores the long‐term effectiveness of two differing models of early intervention for children with reading difficulties: Reading Recovery and a specific phonological training. Approximately 400 children were pre‐tested, 95 were assigned to Reading Recovery, 97 to Phonological Training and the remainder acted as controls. In the short and medium term both interventions significantly improved aspects of children's reading, Reading Recovery having a broader and more powerful effect. In the long‐term, 3½ years after intervention, there were no significant effects on reading overall, though Reading Recovery had a significant effect for a subgroup of children who were complete non‐readers at 6 years old. Phonological Training had a significant effect on spelling. The short and medium‐term effects demonstrate that it is possible substantially to reduce children's reading problems. The long‐term effects raise doubts about relying on early intervention alone.

Effects of a Supplemental Early Reading Intervention With At-Risk Urban Learners

This study investigated the effects of a supplemental early reading intervention program on the phonemic awareness and alphabetic principle skills of students identified as at risk for reading failure. Seven kindergarten students and one firstgrade student received 20 min of supplemental reading instruction 3 days a week for 16, 12, and 8 weeks. The researcher and a paraprofessional implemented the intervention in a coteaching format. A multiple-baseline-across-subjects design was used to analyze the effects of the instruction on Phoneme-Segmentation Fluency (PSF; Good & Kaminski, 2002) and Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF; Good & Kaminski, 2002) skills of target students. The results indicated that students made moderate to substantial increases in PSF and NWF as a result of the intervention. Supplemental reading intervention with systematic and explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and the alphabetic principle may be used to improve important literacy skills in kindergarten students identified as at risk for reading failure. The results also indicate that paraprofessionals can be taught to provide effective early reading intervention.

Effective early reading instruction and inclusion: some reflections on mutual dependence

It is argued that attention to effective evidence‐based early reading interventions are a co‐requisite to genuinely inclusive education, with implications not only for reading acquisition, but also for a range of other social and academic domains. This paper briefly describes some of the recent developments in reading research that have the potential to promote the maximally effective reading interventions, and their consequences for inclusive practice. Potential challenges to inclusive education from some aspects of reading research are also considered. Classroom‐based interventions are described and contrasted with both individual tuition and resource room pull‐out models. It is concluded that an evidence‐based model of effective reading intervention can be linked productively with inclusion goals. To do this in practice, attention must be directed towards more highly‐structured evidence‐based approaches to early literacy intervention that allow equality of opportunity, and to the effective training of teachers to this end.

Formulating Secondary-Level Reading Interventions

Recent advances concerning emerging/beginning reading skills, positive behavioral support (PBS), and three-tiered schoolwide prevention models combined with federal mandates (i.e., IDEA and No Child Left Behind) have stimulated interest in providing early and intensive instructional intervention services to children at risk for reading and behavior problems. New measures for identifying students as early as kindergarten who are not acquiring early basic literacy skills make this possible. However, questions regarding exactly how to formulate, deliver, sustain, and manage secondary-level interventions remain to be addressed. This paper describes first-year, first-grade findings for students participating in secondary-level interventions (i.e., small-group reading instruction) in a randomized trial of the efficacy of secondary and tertiary reading and behavior interventions under way at the Center for Early Intervention in Reading and Behavior, University of Kansas. The formulation of the experimental secondary-level intervention was guided by evidence supporting the efficacy of (a) small groups of 3 to 6 participating students and low student-teacher ratio combined with (b) explicit, phonics-based instruction. Selected curricula were Reading Mastery, Proactive Reading, Programmed Reading, and Read Well, use of which varied by choice across experimental-group schools. PBS was an additional intervention context in experimental schools. Comparison schools and first-grade teachers did not employ the three-tiered model, early screening, or PBS; most students were taught using conventional whole-group instruction, little or no individualization, and curricula with weak scientific evidence. Initial results indicate significantly larger growth for experimental secondary-level at-risk students than for comparisons. Experimental-group first graders not showing growth were those identified with disabilities or behavioral risks and English language learners. Implications are discussed.

Assessing the Rationales for Educational Reforms: An Examination of Policy Claims About Professional Development, Comprehensive Reform, and Direct Instruction

Evaluation studies seldom examine whether the rationales used to argue for an educational reform actually hold up when empirical evidence is examined after the reform has been implemented. This article examines survey data from 3 years of analyses of early reading interventions to examine three rationales that were used to argue for the program. First, there was evidence to support the argument that teachers need time to collaborate about improving educational outcomes. This study found that 2 years of funding for early reading reforms provided a margin of difference for collaborative efforts among teachers to promote reading-related outcomes. Second, the argument that comprehensive reform strategies promote gains in student outcomes was also supported, but not all reform models had their intended effects. Finally, there was no evidence from this study that the direct/explicit approach to reading instruction improved student outcomes, although this claim merits more systematic study in the future.

Early Identification of At-Risk L2 Readers

The present study examined which measures best identify English-speaking French immersion (FI) students at risk of future reading difficulties in French and English. Using reading scores taken in both languages at the end of Grade 1 and beginning of Grade 2, typical and poor reader groups were identified. Measures taken at the beginning of Grade 1 in tasks evaluating phonological abilities in English were used to determine group membership. Predictive discriminant analysis showed that performance on phoneme blending and sound isolation tasks identified poor and typical readers in English, while phoneme blending, sound isolation, and Rapid Naming identified poor and typical readers in French. These results can be used to identify new cases for the purpose of early reading interventions.

Early Identification of At-Risk L2 Readers

The present study examined which measures best identify English-speaking French immersion (FI) students at risk of future reading difficulties in French and English. Using reading scores taken in both languages at the end of Grade 1 and beginning of Grade 2, typical and poor reader groups were identified. Measures taken at the beginning of Grade 1 in tasks evaluating phonological abilities in English were used to determine group membership. Predictive discriminant analysis showed that performance on phoneme blending and sound isolation tasks identified poor and typical readers in English, while phoneme blending, sound isolation, and Rapid Naming identified poor and typical readers in French. These results can be used to identify new cases for the purpose of early reading interventions.