Early Postmortem Changes Research Articles

Macroscopic Differences of Pig Eye after Death: A Veterinary Forensic Study

The study of veterinary forensics is a field of science that is developing rapidly in the world of veterinary medicine. Veterinary forensics plays a crucial role in investigating and resolving cases involving animals, either as subjects or objects in incidents and ensuring the collection of all possible biological and physical evidence. Given the close relationship between humans and animals, numerous significant cases arise that are pertinent to veterinary forensics. The current research aimed to determine early post-mortem changes in pigs, providing insights into animal mortality in real-world scenarios. Observations were made on seven male Yorkshire pigs, aged 3 months old, with an average weight of 30.1 kg. Pigs were observed at four different post-mortem intervals, including 2,4,6, and 8 hours after death, with initial observations at the time of death serving as the control. Observations of changes in the eye sclera, eye lens, eyeball temperature, and eyeball pressure were carried out at each time interval. Results at the 2nd and 4th hours post-mortem showed no macroscopic changes in the eye sclera and eye lens, but there were changes in eye pressure. By the 6th and 8th hours, changes in the sclera and eye lens showed desiccation in the area of the sclera and the eye lens, which became increasingly cloudy. The eyeball temperature measurement values from the 2nd to 8th hour of the study revealed a significant decrease in eyeball pressure. The results of this study indicated observable changes in the eyes can be used as a basic alternative method for calculating the introductory post-mortem interval in animals in the future. There was a significant decrease in eyeball temperature, and eyeball compactness, as significant differences in the eye sclera, and eye lens at 2, 4, 6, and 8 hours post-mortem, compared to the time of death. These variables offer crucial insights into early post-mortem changes in pigs, using the eyes as the primary focus of observation.

Essence of postmortem computed tomography for in-hospital deaths: what clinical radiologists should know.

Postmortem computed tomography (CT) is an essential tool for investigating the causes of death. Postmortem CT has characteristic imaging findings and should not be interpreted in the same manner as clinical antemortem images. In analyzing the cause of death in in-hospital death cases using postmortem images, it is crucial to understand early postmortem and post-resuscitation changes. In addition, it is essential to understand the limitations of diagnosing the cause of death or significant pathology relating to death on non-contrast-enhanced postmortem CT. In Japan, there has also been social demand to establish a system for postmortem imaging at the time of death. To facilitate such a system, clinical radiologists should be prepared to interpret postmortem images and assess the cause of death. This review article provides comprehensive information regarding unenhanced postmortem CT for in-hospital death cases in daily clinical practice in Japan.

Towards the discovery of goat meat quality biomarkers using label-free proteomics

This study aimed to identify for the first time protein biomarkers of meat quality traits from Longissimus thoracis (LT) muscle of goats (Capra hircus). Male goats of similar age and weight reared under extensive rearing conditions were used to relate the LT muscle proteome with multiple meat quality traits. The early post-mortem muscle proteome analyzed using label-free proteomics was compared among three texture clusters built using hierarchical clustering analysis. Twenty-five proteins were differentially abundant and their mining using bioinformatics revealed three major biological pathways to be involved: 10 muscle structure proteins (MYL1, MYL4, MYLPF, MYL6B, MYH1, MYH2, ACTA1, ACTBL2, FHL1 and MYOZ1); 6 energy metabolism proteins (ALDOA, PGAM2, ATP5F1A, GAPDH, PGM1 and ATP5IF1), and two heat shock proteins: HSPB1 (small) and HSPA8 (large). Seven other miscellaneous proteins belonging to pathways such as regulation, proteolysis, apoptosis, transport and binding, tRNA processing or calmodulin-binding were further identified to play a role in the variability of goat meat quality. The differentially abundant proteins were correlated with the goat meat quality traits in addition to multivariate regression models built to propose the first regression equations of each quality trait. This study is the first to highlight in a multi-trait quality comparison the early post-mortem changes in the goat LT muscle proteome. It also evidenced the mechanisms underpinning the development of several quality traits of interest in goat meat production along the major biochemical pathways at interplay. SignificanceThe discovery of protein biomarkers in the field of meat research is an emerging topic. In the case of goat meat quality, very few studies using proteomics have been conducted with the aim of proposing biomarkers. Therefore, this study is the first to quest for biomarkers of goat meat quality using label-free shotgun proteomics with a focus on multiple quality traits. We identified the molecular signatures underlying goat meat texture variation, which were found to belong to muscle structure and related proteins, energy metabolism and heat shock proteins along with other proteins involved in regulation, proteolysis, apoptosis, transport and binding, tRNA processing or calmodulin-binding. We further evaluated the potential of the candidate biomarkers to explain meat quality using the differentially abundant proteins by means of correlation and regression analyses. The results allowed the explanation of the variation in multiple traits such as pH, color, water-holding capacity, drip and cook losses traits and texture.

Association of Cadaveric Factors with the Degree and Region of Discoloration on Pink Teeth: An Approach to Serial Cases

The pink teeth phenomenon has been observed in cases of hanging and drowning, but the relationship of this phenomenon with cause of death has not been positively affirmed. To date, teeth with a pinkish tone have been simply regarded as pink teeth. However, we speculated that classification and evaluation of the degree and region of discoloration with reference to how color is classified in prosthodontic dentistry may produce novel findings regarding the pink teeth phenomenon. Therefore, we classified the degree and region of discoloration on teeth into three grades and attempted to evaluate the relationship of grade with various cadaveric factors in 68 cases of pink teeth. The degree and region scores of discoloration did not show significant differences in terms of sex, age, cause of death, and place of discovery, but the degree of discoloration in terms of time after death showed a significant increase at 6 months (p < 0.01) and a significant decrease after 7 months (p < 0.05), while the region score also showed a significant decrease after 7 months. Furthermore, in 18 cases of drowning, the degree of discoloration significantly increased with time after death (p < 0.01). Thus, it was clarified that time after death was most strongly related to the pink teeth phenomenon, suggesting cadaveric decomposition may affect the occurrence of pink teeth. Further investigation in cases of early postmortem changes would be required to determine whether pink teeth in putrefactive cadavers have utility in medico–legal assessments.

Early postmortem changes in the pulmonary artery and veins: An antemortem and postmortem computed tomography study

• Postmortem changes in the pulmonary artery and veins were unclear. • The diameter of the pulmonary artery and veins was measured at five points both on the antemortem and postmortem CT of the same patient. Two patient groups were enrolled: the control group and the died-of-congestive heart failure group. • In both groups, the main pulmonary artery diameter decreased after death. • Congestive heart failure caused a greater decrease in pulmonary vein diameter compared to the control group. To compare the diameter of pulmonary vessels on antemortem (AMCT) and postmortem computed tomography (PMCT). This retrospective case–control study included 641 patients who underwent AMCT within 30 days before death, died in the hospital, and underwent PMCT and conventional autopsy, as a reference standard, soon after death between 2009 and 2020 at a university hospital. The control group comprised 8 patients without lung and pulmonary vessel abnormalities, whereas the heart failure group comprised 16 patients who died of congestive heart failure. The diameters of the main pulmonary artery and bilateral superior and inferior pulmonary veins were measured on AMCT and PMCT images and statistically analyzed (240 vessels in total). In both groups, PMCT resulted in significantly smaller main pulmonary artery diameters compared to AMCT. The control group had greater pulmonary vein diameters compared to the heart failure group after death, although the difference did not reach statistical significance. Comparison between the groups revealed that the heart failure group had significantly greater tendency for postmortem decrease in the pulmonary vein diameters compared to the control group. Our findings showed that the main pulmonary artery diameter decreases after death. Moreover, patients who died of congestive heart failure had a greater tendency for decreased pulmonary vein diameter compared to those who died without cardiopulmonary abnormalities. Five measuring points of the pulmonary vessels.

Classification of Post-Mortem Changes and Factors Affecting It

An autopsy is not simply the patient's last medical intervention but in addition to determining the cause of death, it also provides information about the deceased patient's underlying health. The natural process of the body's breakdown following death, starting at the cellular level, is known as post-mortem change. Complex cellular and biochemical phenomena are involved in the process. The changes that begin right away after death continue for a considerable amount of time at various rates for various organs. Numerous intrinsic and extrinsic factors have an impact on the beginning and severity of these changes. The purpose of this research is to review the available information about classification of post-mortem changes and factors affecting it. Post-mortem changes are further divided into three classes, Immediate changes, early changes and late changes. After cardiac and respiratory failure, early post-mortem changes including rigor mortis and post-mortem lividity occur. However, tissue metabolism continues for a few hours after death. Supravital reactions, time-dependent post-mortem lividity, and rigor mortis criteria are used to estimate the time since death. Estimating the post-mortem interval or time since death, is one of the main aims of the forensic autopsy, requires an understanding of post-mortem changes. Many exogenous and endogenous factors can lead to degradation. Animal predation, the environment, and mechanical injury are extrinsic causes, whereas autolysis, putrefaction, and decay are endogenous factors. However, despite the importance of post-mortem findings the literature available is very limited more research in future can be a significant contributor.

Cell survival and DNA damage repair are promoted in the human blood thanatotranscriptome shortly after death

RNA analysis of post-mortem tissues, or thanatotranscriptomics, has become a topic of interest in forensic science due to the essential information it can provide in forensic investigations. Several studies have previously investigated the effect of death on gene transcription, but it has never been conducted with samples of the same individual. For the first time, a longitudinal mRNA expression analysis study was performed with post-mortem human blood samples from individuals with a known time of death. The results reveal that, after death, two clearly differentiated groups of up- and down-regulated genes can be detected. Pathway analysis suggests active processes that promote cell survival and DNA damage repair, rather than passive degradation, are the source of early post-mortem changes of gene expression in blood. In addition, a generalized linear model with an elastic net restriction predicted post-mortem interval with a root mean square error of 4.75 h. In conclusion, we demonstrate that post-mortem gene expression data can be used as biomarkers to estimate the post-mortem interval though further validation using independent sample sets is required before use in forensic casework.

Early Postmortem Proteome Changes in Normal and Woody Broiler Breast Muscles.

Early postmortem changes in the whole muscle proteome from normal broiler (NB) and woody broiler (WB) breasts at 0 min, 15 min, 4 h, and 24 h after slaughter were analyzed using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Elongation factor 2, EH domain-containing protein 2, phosphoglycerate mutase 1 (PGAM1), and T-complex protein 1 subunit gamma were differentially abundant in both NB and WB muscles during the early postmortem storage. Twenty additional proteins were differentially abundant among four postmortem time points in either NB or WB muscles. In the postmortem WB, changes in protein degradation were observed, including the degradation of desmin fragments, ovotransferrin chain A, and troponin I chain I. Additionally, a few glycolytic proteins in the WB might have undergone post-translational modification, including enolase, phosphoglucomutase-1, PGAM1, and pyruvate kinase. These changes in protein biomarkers highlight the impact of WB myopathy on postmortem proteome changes and increase our understanding of the relationship between WB conditions, postmortem biochemistry, and meat quality.

Ultrastructure of Cerebral Cortex Investigation during Early Postmortem Changes in a Rat Model

Ultrastructure of Cerebral Cortex Investigation during Early Postmortem Changes in a Rat Model

Research Note: Texture characteristics of wooden breast fillets deboned at different postmortem times

The study aimed to understand whether deboning time contributes to the altered texture attributes of wooden breast (WB) fillets. To this purpose, 30 unaffected (NORM) and 30 severely affected (WB) carcasses were selected at 15 min postmortem (PM) and allotted into treatments with different deboning times: A (5 NORM + 5 WB; right fillets deboned at 15 min PM), B (5 NORM + 5 WB; right fillets deboned at 3 h PM), and C (5 NORM + 5 WB; right fillets deboned at 6 h PM). Left fillets from each carcass were deboned at 24 h PM. Multiple instrumental texture analyses were performed on the cranial-middle portion of the Pectoralis major muscles. Irrespective of deboning time, all fillets were subjected to a single 30% compression in the raw state at 24 h PM. All fillets were cooked at 24 h PM and subjected to shear force assessments at 48 h PM using blunt Meullenet-Owens razor shear, Meullenet-Owens razor shear, and Warner-Bratzler shear force. Using an ANOVA mixed model, deboning time was evaluated as a fixed effect within muscle condition (sampling session and carcass ID as random effects). Compression force assessment of raw meat at 24 h PM showed that WB fillets exhibited the greatest hardness when they were deboned at 6 h PM (15 min = 35.4 N; 3 h = 30.9 N; 6 h = 48.0 N; 24 h = 30.6 N; P < 0.05). Differently, deboning time had no effect (P > 0.05) on raw compression force values in NORM fillets. In cooked NORM fillets, shear force values were the greatest in fillets deboned at 15 min, and shear force gradually declined with deboning time through 24 h PM. On the contrary, no changes (P > 0.05) in shear values due to different deboning times were observed in cooked WB meat regardless of shear method. These results suggest that early PM changes in breast muscles and their influence on meat texture are different between normal and WB fillets.

Expeditious prediction of post-mortem changes in frozen fish meat using three-dimensional fluorescence fingerprints.

The present study was conducted to characterize fluorophores in the fish body using three-dimensional fluorescence fingerprints (3D-FFs) and to utilize these 3D-FFs obtained from frozen horse mackerel (Trachurus japonicus) fillets to predict early post-mortem changes. Alive fish were sacrificed instantly, preserved in ice until 2 days, and then filleted, vacuum packed, and frozen. Subsequently, 3D-FFs of the frozen fillets were acquired using F-7000 aided with a fiber probe. Post-mortem freshness changes were tracked by measuring adenylate energy charge (AEC) values and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD and NADH) content. Partial least squares regression models for predicting AEC values and NADH content in frozen fish meat showed good fittings, with R2 of 0.90 and 0.85, by utilizing eight and five excitation wavelengths, respectively, based on their fluorescence features acquired from standard fluorophores. This novel approach of 3D-FFs could be utilized as an efficient technique for at-line monitoring of frozen fish quality.

CONSISTENT PATTERNS OF POSTMORTAL STRUCTURAL AND BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES IN DIAPHRAGM MUSCULAR TISSUE: IMPORTANCE FOR FORENSIC MEDICAL ESTIMATION OF TIME OF DEATH COMING

The issue on estimating the time of death coming still remains a challenge that requires a lot of questions to be answered, therefore, the development of new scientific methods aimed at overcoming these difficulties is a top priority in solving the problem of estimating the time of death coming.&#x0D; The purpose of this study was to investigate the structural and biochemical changes in the muscle tissue of the diaphragm in the early post-mortem period.&#x0D; The muscular tissue samples of the diaphragm just below the lungs taken from 30 human corpses in the early post-mortem period (in time intervals of 3-13 hours from the onset of death) were investigated. We studied structural and biochemical markers in the homogenates of the muscles of the diaphragm: the content of glycogen, acid phosphatase, lactate, lactate dehydrogenase, lipofuscin, and cholinesterase. It was found out that in the early post-mortem period structural and biochemical changes in the muscle tissue of the diaphragm are characterized by regular morphological biochemical and biophysical changes. In particular, the post-mortem dynamic changes in glycogen, acid phosphatase and lipofuscin levels is most significant; i.e. within the time interval of 3–9 hours from the time of death coming, the assessment of the “cholinesterase / glycogen or acidic phosphatase / glycogen” ratio is the most diagnostically valuable, then after 9 hours the only “cholinesterase / glycogen” ratio is meaningful.&#x0D; The content of glycogen in the homogenates of the diaphragm muscle tissue depending on the time of death coming ranged from (4.765 ± 0.058) mg / g in 3 hours, to (1.883 ± 0.027) mg / g in 13 hours after the death coming, reliably ( p &lt;0.001) differing in time intervals. The inverse pattern was characterized by the acid phosphatase content: (2.748 ± 0.019) u / g in 3 hours and (4.49 ± 0.032) u / g in 13 hours. These markers are the most significant to demonstrate the patterns and can be used as critically important signs in forensic diagnosis.

Early postmortem biochemical and histopathological changes in the kidney, liver, and muscles of dogs

The goal of the present study was to investigate the biochemical and histological changes in dog’s kidney, liver, heart, and skeletal muscles within 72 h after death. Ten male mongrel dogs aged from 1 to 2 years old were subjected to this study. Dogs were euthanized by the rapid intravenous injection of a lethal dose of sodium thiopental, and then the liver, kidney, heart, and skeletal muscle samples were collected from the whole carcasses at different time intervals 4, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h postmortem. Samples were divided into two parts; one part was used for measuring tissue levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), lactate, creatine phosphokinase (CPK), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST). The other part was subjected to histopathological examinations. On the biochemical level, LDH in the liver, kidney, and cardiac and skeletal muscles showed a significant increase at 4 h followed by significant decrease at 48 and 72 h in all the studied tissues. Lactate level showed variable degrees of increase and decrease in kidney and liver tissues while muscles showed increased lactate concentration during the first 48 h then decreased at 72 h. CPK in cardiac and skeletal muscles showed similar changes; it increased from 4 to 48 h then decreased at 72 h. AST level decreased in liver tissue at 4 until 72 h, while in muscular tissue it showed a delayed reduction in concentration which started at 12 and 24 h in the cardiac and skeletal muscles respectively. Similar changes of AST levels in both skeletal and cardiac muscles were observed; it increased at 4 h and then decreased at 24, 48, and 72 h. Histopathological changes in the kidneys were the earliest changes seen in tissue. The changes in the hepatic tissue were earlier than those of heart and skeletal muscle. We concluded that LDH enzyme showed regular changes in all examined tissues; the biochemical changes in cardiac and skeletal muscles were regular and can be useful in estimation of the time of death. The histopathological changes in the kidney, liver, and cardiac and skeletal muscles were very clear and can be used for estimating the postmortem intervals in dogs.

Study of early postmortem changes in lips for estimation of postmortem interval at Pims Loni

The primary task of medico-legal death estimation is the reliable estimation of the time since death1. On the basis of postmortem changes2–22. Under influence of different factors. This study was performed to know the postmortem interval with the early postmortem changes appears in lip with what effect appear over the lips during the passage of time with presence of all external and internal factor. The softness assessed by the compression of the lips by the finger and lusterness, moistness and color of lip were observed. Color, softness, lusterness, moistness feature of lips tested in study. In all 66 cases, lips does not shows color, luster, moistness and softness of lips after death within postmortem interval of 03 to 24 hours during presence of factor like age, sex, built, season, minimum to maximum temperature, humidity, cause, mode and manner of death. Dead body shows dullness, lusterless, hardness and dryness of skin within 03 to 24 hours postmortem interval in relation to external and internal factor.

Application of research in the field of forensic entomology for determining the time of death in dogs

Precisely determined time of death is one of the most important pieces of information obtained during a post-mortem investigation. There are several traditional methods for determining time of death, the most important of which are evaluation of early post-mortem changes, such as the change in body temperature. The study was aimed at identifying insects collected from the body and establishing the time of death by observing the developmental cycle of the indicator species Calliphora vicina. The material for the main experiment was the carcass of a dog. The length of the developmental cycles of insects depends on ambient conditions, so studies should take as many criteria as possible into account. Succession of arthropods, as well as the species composition and indicator insects of particular stages of decomposition, is very similar in human and animal carcasses. The results obtained were considered with respect to the time that had passed since the death of the animal. Experiments on dog carcasses may in the future contribute to the development of research enabling determination of the time of death of animals, which is a subject of increasing interest in forensic veterinary medicine....

Death as a Process: Early Postmortem Changes Observed in the Agonal Stage of Terminal Patients

Agony can be defined as the preciding stage to death, in those situations where life is gradually extinguished. So that, agony is characterized by the cese of the vital functions. From the moment of death and throughout the decomposition process, a series of observable postmortem changes occur in the corpse. Early postmortem changes are rigor mortis, livor mortis, algor mortis and cornea drying.

Technical note: early post-mortem changes of human bone in taphonomy with μCT.

Post-mortem interval (PMI) estimation is an important issue in forensic medicine, particularly for criminal purposes and legal limitation periods. The goal of the present study is to examine the evolution of the trabecular cranial vault bone after 4weeks of conservation in a controlled environment with micro-tomography (μCT) analyses.Four bone samples were extracted from a fresh human cranial vault (a donation to science according to the French law) and conserved in an air-controlled environment. The samples were weighed and μCT scanned at a 10-μm resolution every week after death for a month. The μCT features were identical for every sample. Each set of data from the μCTs was reconstructed, registered, and analyzed in terms of the total volume, bone volume, bone surface, number of trabeculae, trabeculae thickness, and mean distance of the trabeculae. The samples were conserved in a glass box in 20°C air with 60% humidity in a laboratory hood between each μCT acquisition. Descriptive statistics were determined. Each sample was observed and compared to itself over time.After 1month of conservation, the mean bone volume (-1.9%), bone surface (-5.1%), and trabecular number (-12.35%) decreased, whereas the mean trabecular separation (+5.55%) and trabecular thickness (+12.7%) increased. Many variations (i.e., increases and decreases) were observed between the extraction of the sample and the end of the 4weeks of conservation. The present observations may be explained by bone diagenesis. Previous observations have indicated that protein and lipid losses occur with bone weight and volume losses. These diagenesis effects may explain the trabecular modifications observed in the present work. We observed many bone variations with the μCT scans between the beginning and the end of the conservation that had no explanations. Additional studies, particularly studies involving statistics, need to be performed to confirm our observations and explain these results more clearly.

Post-mortem CT evaluation of atlanto-occipital dissociation

Atlanto-occipital dissociation injury is an important injury in forensic pathology practice. Radiological diagnosis of atlanto-occipital dissociation clinically is assessed by direct measurement of occipito-vertebral skeletal relationships. Different measurements may be used to diagnose atlanto-occipital dissociation, including the basion-dens interval (BDI) and basion-axial interval (BAI). It is not known whether the normal ante-mortem measurements of BDI and BAI described in the literature are applicable to post-mortem CT images of the occipito-cervical junction (OCJ) or whether these measurements could be affected by early post-mortem changes. This study aims to compare post-mortem BDI and BAI measurements with ante-mortem values. Post-mortem CT scans of the cervical spines of 100 deceased adults were reviewed, and the BDI and BAI were measured. Different parameters were recorded in each case. The results from this study suggest that there are no effects of post-mortem changes on the measurement of BAI as relied upon clinically. There appear to be some effects of fully established rigor mortis on BDI measurement, shortening it. This may have consequences for the post mortem diagnosis of atlanto-occipital dissociation.

FEATURES OF COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY AUTOPSY: THE PROBLEM OF INTERPRETATION OF SPECIFIC AND NONSPECIFIC ARTIFACTS

The literature review analyzes studies on postmortem CT as an alternative to the conventional autopsy in forensic examination of the bodies of an adults. The main objective of the review is to give a brief analysis of the characteristics of post-mortem CT imaging, which do not face the clinical radiologists in their practice. The analysis comes up with 72 literature sources. The basic Internet resources were used during preparation of the study: Scientific Electronic Library (elibrary), SciVerse (ScienceDirect), Scopus, PubMed, and Discover. The review includes articles which discuss both the advantages and limitations of CT in the posthumous forensic examination of the bodies of an adults, and especially post-mortem CT imaging the most common pathological processes and artefacts. Conclusions. Early and late postmortem changes, such as rigor, autolysis, putrefaction and others largely change the normal pattern in CT imaging clinical radiologists are used to. In particular, the interpretation of CT images of the corpse must consider common specific and non-specific artefacts which result from: agonal changes (alteration in anatomical appearance, decomposition); autolysis, putrefaction; regurgitation of gastro-intestinal contents, aspiration; lividity and hypostasis; postmortem blood clotting; resuscitation effects; postmortem handling/autopsy technique; insect activity; and many others. These artefacts are not pathological findings, and should always be taken into account when interpreting the postmortem CT images.

Troisième Cours Francophone sur l'Autopsie Virtuelle

On October 4, 2013 the Groupe de Recherche en Autopsie Virtuelle et Imagerie Thanathologique (GRAVIT) organized the third French course on virtual autopsy in Marseille, France (Fig. 1). This year, the French course on virtual autopsy was attended by more than 60 participants. Most of them were either radiologists or forensic pathologists or radiographers. The current congress program covered a wide range of aspects on post-mortem imaging but kept a focus on post-mortem angiography. The morning session was dedicated to “Challenging Cases”. After a brief introduction, the first speaker, Dr. Matthieu Coulange (France) discussed aspects of drowning on post-mortem computed tomography (PMCT) with a special emphasis on distribution patterns of intravascular gas collections. This lecture was followed by a very interesting report by Dr. Douraied BenSalem (France) on a recently concluded study on deaths related to heat and fire exposure. The lecture covered challenges related to signs of vitality, the diagnosis of the cause of death, and identification. Identificationwas also a key aspect of the lecture on imaging in decomposed bodies by Dr. Fabrice Dedouit (France). Dr. Dedouit provided a very comprehensive overview over various aspects of both early and late postmortem changes. The last lecture of the morning was dedicated to crash-dummymodeling based on cadaveric experiments. Dr. Thierry Bege (France) offered a very fascinating insight in to how experimental research on traumatic injury can be translated to models of humans to analyze cause and effect in motor vehicle accidents. The afternoon session was opened by Dr. Thomas Ruder (Switzerland) who gave an introduction to post-mortem magnetic resonance imaging (PMMR), including PMMR-angiography. In his second lecture, Dr. Ruder provided an overview over the development, current techniques and applications of PMCT-angiography. This lecture was followed by Dr. Silke Grabherr (Switzerland), who reported the current state of the European multi-center PMCTangiography study by the Technical Working Group Postmortem Angiography Methods (TWGPAM). The session on post-mortem angiography was concluded by Dr. Guillaume Gorincour (France) who lectured on technical aspects of PMCT-angiography as performed in Marseille. The day was closed by Dr. Valerie Souffron (France), who provided an interesting insight in to sociologic aspects of post-mortem imaging. There is no doubt that the third French Course on Virtual Autopsy was a great success. The program offered a variety of lectures which were interesting for both participants without and with experience in post-mortem imaging. In addition, the coffee and lunch breaks offered ample opportunities to meet and greet colleagues.