Early Islamic Period Research Articles

A Clarification of the Terms Dakhma and Astodān on the Basis of Literary Records and Archeological Research in Fars Province

Abstract The terms dakhma (open-air tomb) and astodān (ossuary) are often used interchangeably despite the fact that they refer to two distinct structures with different meanings in pre-Islamic Iranian burial practices. The present study explores the differences between the two structures, along with burial-related terms used by ancient Persians, by examining ancient and medieval Iranian manuscripts and by conducting a field study of surviving artifacts from ancient times. The results show that dakhma (or dakhmagāh) was a general term referring to the entire burial site and its constituent elements—as opposed to the specific astodān. Both of these structures should be differentiated from small hollowed ledges on the edges or surfaces of mountains, which were engraved as late as the early Islamic period (seventh to ninth centuries), even though the terms dakhma and astodān appear in their inscriptions. Although the latter have led some scholars to conflate the terms, the present study finds that these small stone structures and hollows are neither dakhma nor astodān, but rather served as a symbolic memorial to the departed. Furthermore, other burial-related structures in the environs of the dakhma, including mortar-shaped hollowed stones (sang-ābs) and cascade-like stone grooves (called sor-sor-e hāy-e sangi), which have received scant attention, can be traced back to Zoroastrian rituals in Avestan texts and point to the presence of a dakhma. Finally, the present field study, which explored ancient burial sites in the Marvdasht plain in Fars Province, includes unique information and details that are presented here for the first time.

Chiara Barbati, Vittorio Berti (eds.). Iranianate and Syriac Christianity in Late Antiquity and the Early Islamic Period

Chiara Barbati, Vittorio Berti (eds.). Iranianate and Syriac Christianity in Late Antiquity and the Early Islamic Period

Chiara Barbati, Vittorio Berti (eds.). Iranianate and Syriac Christianity in Late Antiquity and the Early Islamic Period 5th-11th Centuries

Chiara Barbati, Vittorio Berti (eds.). Iranianate and Syriac Christianity in Late Antiquity and the Early Islamic Period 5th-11th Centuries

Developing Business Model Based on Islamic Classical Economic Thoughts

This study aims to develop a business model based on Islamic economic thoughts pioneered by Muslim thinkers such as Abu Yusuf, al-Syaibani, Abu Ubayd, al-Mawardi, al-Ghazali, Ibn Taimiyah, and Ibn Khaldun. They existed from the early period of Islam until 1446. An absence of consensus on the definition of a business model that is universally accepted has led to the reassessment of the current business model towards pro-business and encouraged by profit margins. A holistic and comprehensive business model influences a business's enhanced performance. Hence, in reality, the survival rate of businesses, mainly businesses run by Muslims, is at a low ebb, although Islam has provided guidelines for all life activities, including business strategies. Hence, further studies should be conducted to seek solutions to overcome the resilience of Muslim businesses by referring to the thoughts of Islamic economic scholars. However, the scholarly thoughts were not organised as a scientific discipline, which eventually led to a decline in the Islamic economy, and consequently, humans began to follow the conventional economy. Data were collected through the document analysis and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) methods involving agency representatives, entrepreneurs, and academicians in the business field. It was then analysed using the content analysis method. Findings indicate that the business model comprised four components, namely production, business transactions, marketing, and the government's role, which was based on Islamic creed (aqidah), Islamic law (shariah), and Islamic morality and manners (akhlaq), acts as a catalyst for a successful business venture. This study has a significant impact and offers a new solution for overcoming and substantiating society's economic growth and development by making business a mechanism for empowering the Islamic economy.
 
 Received: 16 April 2022 / Accepted: 25 June 2022 / Published: 5 July 2022

Psychological Warfare and Its Applications in the Early Period of Islam

Soğuk savaşın bir türü olan psikolojik savaş, tarih boyunca hayatın her alanında farklı amaçlar için uygulanmıştır. Psikolojik savaşın bir yöntemi olan propaganda ise hedef kitleye karşı uygulanan bir iletişim şeklidir. Propaganda, özellikle savaş esnasında olayları çarpıtarak hedef kitleyi aldatmak için kullanılır. Psikolojik savaş ve propagandanın sosyolojik bir bakışla ele alınması, önemli bir araştırma konusudur. Bu bağlamda söylenti/dedikodu da hedef kitleyi yıpratmak için kullanılan bir taktiktir. İçeriği yanlış veya asılsız olsa bile söylenti/dedikodu toplumu etkileyerek insanları şüpheye düşüren, morallerini bozarak şevklerini kıran bir metottur. 
 Konu ile yakından ilgili olması nedeniyle çalışmamızda öncelikle psikolojik savaş, propaganda ve algı üzerinde durulmuştur. İslam’da psikolojik savaştan sonra Hz. Peygamber’e karşı uygulanan psikolojik savaşa değinilmiştir. Mekke müşriklerinin uyguladıkları kara propaganda ve psikolojik savaş üzerinde durularak gerekli yorumlar yapılmıştır. Çalışmanın konusu Mekke dönemi ile sınırlandırılmıştır.

Assimilation of Indo-Parthians in Indian Society: Effects and Results

Due to a dearth of relevant information, the Indo Parthian kingdoms are not well-known archaeologically or historically. They aren't mentioned in mythological history or historical records from the early Islamic period. They dominated the land ruled by Indo-Greeks and Indo-Scythians. Some researchers have failed to distinguish between Parthian and Scythian kings, and have made no obvious distinctions between the two countries' leaders. The goal of this research is to look into the history of the Indo-Parthian monarchy. By relying on numismatic sources and evaluating historical researches, the study's research technique is descriptive-analytical, and an attempt has been made to pay attention to the ambiguities and complexity of the Parthian control of India. The study found that the Parthians of India were politically independent of the Parthians of Iran, and that despite their seeming independence, the two governments had no antagonistic relations; rather, the Parthian rulers of Iran considered the Parthians of India as intruders in their domain. The following order of reign of kings can be considered in the sequence of Parthian kings of India according to numismatic documents: Gondophares (simultaneously with Orthagnes and Guda), Abdagases, Pacores, Sanabares I, II, and III, and other kings named Parhas and Semara who are known by their names on the coins. Keywords: Gondophares, Indo-Pathian, India, Parthians and Kindgom

Human And Animal Figures In The Art Of The Umayyad Period

Emevi İslam sanatı çok zengin bir sanat anlayışına sahiptir. Bu sanatsal zenginlik içinde yer alan insan ve hayvan figürleri bu dönemlerin mimari, el sanatları ve diğer farklı alanların vazgeçilmez süsleme unsuru haline gelmiştir. Dolayısıyla figür sanatı İslam sanatı içinde çok önemli bir paya sahip olmuştur. Erken İslam dönemi sanatı figürleri farklı kültürlerin etkileşimi yanında kendilerine özgü bir tarz ve üsluba sahiptir. Bu nedenle İslam sanatında heykel put ve resim yasağı olmasına rağmen figür sanatı bertaraf edilmeden varlığını koruyarak devam etmiştir. Günümüze kadar gelen figürlerin ne derece ehemmiyete sahip olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır. Çünkü insan ve hayvan figürleri İslam sanatın en önemli unsuru olan süslemenin bir parçası haline gelmiştir. İslam’ın gelmemesiyle resim ve heykele olan olumsuz bakış açısı artmış olmasına rağmen erken dönem İslam sanatında gerek sivil hayatta gerekse toplumsal ortamda figürlerin işlenmesi bu sanatın önemini vurgulamıştır. Sivil mimarinin süslemelerinde özellikle saray mimarisinin süslemelerinde isti’mal edilmesi figürün dinden bağımsız tamamen siyasi bir saik ile İslam sanatına dahil olduğu söylenebilir. Ayet ve hadislere karşı temkinli davranmalarına rağmen bu sanattan vazgeçilmemiş aksine İslam sanatının mühim bir parçası haline getirmiştir. Bu çalışmada, sözü edilen boşluğu doldurmak, konunun önemine dikkat çekmek ve daha önemlisi Emevi figürüne dair bir pencere açabilmek hedeflenmiştir. Dolayasıyla ile elde edilen bulguları yorumlamak ve sunmak heyecan verici olacaktır.

Bukhara and its neighborhood. Reassessing the cultural links of the oasis from new ceramic evidence

Ceramic assemblages from the Bukhara Oasis show an interesting mix of vessel forms and decorative styles, specifically in pre-Islamic times. Some elements of the tableware bear resemblance to material from adjacent regions in the south-west and south-east, including Margiana and Bactria, while others, specifically the storage vessels, appear to be inspired by the north-west or eastern areas, such as Khoresm and Chach. Surface coatings and slip paint proved to be highly significant in identifying these distinct cultural links.Drawing upon samples from the recent excavations by the MAFOUB project, this paper will trace the various cultural strains through analyzing the use of slip and slip-paint as an exemplary feature in the ceramic assemblages of the Bukhara Oasis from antiquity to the early Islamic period. Individual decorative patterns appear to be restricted to certain parts of the vessel repertoire. While coated vessels firmly belong to the tableware inventory, cursory applied slip paint with drizzling effects is mostly observed on containers and storage jars. Some slip painted decorations illustrate the considerable variation this technique enjoyed within the Bukhara Oasis.Our diachronic study highlights these diversities and follows the implied cultural alliances to shed light on Bukhara's position and role within the Central Asian neighborhood.

Pigs in a pit: An unusual find of ritual suid exploitation in an Early Islamic context at the site of Tel Yavne, Israel

A shallow, human dug pit dated to the Early Islamic period (Area C3, 9th-10th century CE) and containing solely pig remains (Sus scrofa/S. s. domesticus) was discovered in an ongoing large scale excavation in Tel Yavne, Israel. Evidence of the intentional disposal or interment of the pig remains in the pit raises questions regarding the reasons for this peculiar occurrence at a time that the southern Levant was subject to the rule of Islamic law and dietary prohibitions. While it is known that non-Muslim communities continued to flourish in the region during the Early Islamic period (Fischer and Taxel 2007, and see the historical references therein), direct evidence of pig exploitation at this time has not been extensively documented. Our results indicate that at least seven suids, most of them domesticated and a few of feral/wild individuals, were slaughtered and rapidly deposited together inside the pit, in a one-time event. A comparison of the remains from the pit with other suid remains from the site, dated to the late Byzantine-Early Islamic period (7th-10th century CE), shows the pit to be a strikingly dense concentration of pig remains and reveals a unique techonomic pattern of the dominance of maxilla over mandibles. Pig husbandry at the site was generally based on culling of young animals (piglets), a pattern typical of dense urban sites, while many of the animals in the pit displayed abnormal molar tooth wear, suggesting consumption of abrasive food and teeth defects indicating stressful captivity conditions. We refer to archaeological and historical data in an attempt to reconstruct a scenario explaining the suid pit.

Fish in ancient Jerusalem: Trade and consumption of fish in an inland site from the Iron Ages to the Early Islamic period

The ichthyological evidence that is available for the import and trade of fish into ancient Jerusalem is summarized against the backdrop of social and political developments of the Iron Ages to Early Islamic periods (10th century BCE to 10th century CE). Fish remains, originating from the Nile River, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, and the Lake of Galilee, are regularly found in excavations of Jerusalem. Jerusalem’s nearest water source, the Gihon spring, does not allow for fish habitation, therefore the remains of fish represent trade imports. The aim of this paper is to assess the production and trade of fish through the lens of new assemblages from the City of David, in Area D3, and from the Givati Parking Lot excavations, in Area 10, dating to the 8th through 2nd centuries BCE. These finds also allowed us to explore production and consumption within ancient urban centers that engaged in long-distance commerce. These assemblages, paired with previously published assemblages, allow for an in-depth diachronic perspective of fish consumption and trade. Results of this research indicate that production techniques varied by species and that trade was sustained after the destruction of the city in 586 BCE. It also attests to changes in trade and consumption as a reaction to political and cultural changes in the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods.

Late Holocene development of Bubiyan Island, Kuwait

AbstractBubiyan Island, presently a vast sabkha and salt flat in the westernmost part of the Shatt Al-Arab delta, originated ca. 4000 cal yr BP as prodelta deposits from a paleochannel of the Euphrates River that flowed into a shallow sea. Southeastern Bubiyan Island first surfaced when spits and barrier islands formed on a 1–2 m forebulge caused by heavy sediment load to the northwest; the spits and barriers delineated an incipient shoreline and sheltered a shallow lagoon. Progradation of southeastern Bubiyan Island began when the spits and barriers were gradually stranded as beach ridges during minor sea-level fluctuations and continued marginal uplift. AMS dating of the beach ridges, which are ~1–5 km from the present shoreline, implies that Late Holocene relative sea level fell in three phases: ca. 3700–3400 cal yr BP, ca. 2600–1000 cal yr BP, and ca. 600–500 cal yr BP. Prior to each phase, relative sea level apparently stabilized to near stillstands, allowing spits and barriers to accrete. Torpedo-jar pottery sherds scattered on some of the most prominent beach ridges indicate Sasanian (AD ca. 300–650; 1650–1300 cal yr BP) to early Islamic (AD ca. 650–800; 1300–1150 cal yr BP) periods of human presence, concurrent with the Second phase of beach-ridge formation.

Radiocarbon dating of lime plaster from a Roman period cistern in ancient Gerasa, Jerash in Jordan

Ancient Gerasa (Jerash, since the Islamic period) is a city with a rich archaeological heritage from prehistory onwards, with the periods from Roman times into the Early Islamic period best attested. A Danish-German team has been working in the Northwest Quarter of the city since 2011. Among the findings was a Roman period monumental cistern that was intentionally filled in, at one point in time. The complexity of the archaeology raised chronological questions regarding the construction, destruction and subsequent backfilling of the cistern. This study contributed to answer these questions by radiocarbon dating lime plaster excavated from the cistern, and comparing the results with charcoal radiocarbon dates from other studies. Radiocarbon dating of plaster and mortar in Jerash is challenging because of contamination of geological carbonates from the local limestone geology. Quoting previous mortar dating studies, this study utilized sample characterization by alkalinity screening, petrography, SEM-EDS, and sample pre-treatment and preparation by wet sieving, sedimentation and stepwise injection. The plaster dates argued for the construction of the cistern being in the last half of the 1st century BCE to the middle of the 1st century CE. A few samples had later mortar dates, which argued for the filling event of the cistern taking place sometime in the late 3rd century CE or later.

Development of Obstetric Practice During the Early Islamic Era

Art of healing was considered the most noble of human undertakings by Islamic scholars. Acquiring medical manuscripts from previous civilizations and translating them into Arabic proceeded at a great pace. This was followed by the emergence of several great physician scientists who examined these writings, corrected many, and proceeded to produce their own, with the addition of significant original paradigm-shifting contributions to all branches of science and medicine. This article highlights some of the most important contributions to obstetrics of several prominent scholars of the early Islamic period (700–1300 A.D.)

Exotic glass types and the intensity of recycling in the northwest Quarter of Gerasa (Jerash, Jordan)

Major and trace elements are presented for 149 glass fragments ranging in date from the Roman to Early Islamic periods (1st – mid-8th centuries CE), excavated during the Danish-German Jerash Northwest Quarter Project's fieldwork between 2011 and 2016. The results confirm a clear dominance of Levantine glass types, but also reveal 12 glasses of Egyptian and Mesopotamian compositions recovered from two houses destroyed by the major earthquake which hit parts of the Levant in January 749 CE. These closed and undisturbed contexts from the final phase of occupation reveal the presence of relatively more pristine Levantine as well as imported material that is less visible in earlier contexts in the Gerasa assemblage, where the recycling indexes are high and chemical signatures of any exotic glass were largely lost due to remelting and their dilution by the overwhelming quantities of glass produced in the Levantine region. This emphasizes that imported glass may frequently be underestimated or even invisible in glass compositional studies, depending on the archaeological context sampled and the approach taken to artifact quantification.Levantine glass was attributed to Roman, Late Roman (Jalame) and Byzantine/Early Islamic (Apollonia) productions based primarily on MnO, Al2O3 and Na2O concentrations, which offered an advantage over previous approaches. While colorants in weakly colored glass indicate recycled material, their concentrations are sensitive to context, with higher concentrations in the early periods when the use of intentionally colored glass was more frequent. We have therefore developed the concept of the intensity of recycling, which was estimated using components modified during prolonged melting, such as K2O, P2O5 and Cl. A pronounced enrichment in CaO, also dependent upon the intensity of recycling, may affect the assignment to compositional groups and should be taken into consideration in future. Recycling in Gerasa appears to have been more intensive than was the case for cities closer to the primary production centers on the Mediterranean coast, consistent with the view that the dependency on recycling increases further away from the source of the primary material. In contrast, the cities in the coastal plain could readily exploit the marine transportation network, which appears to have played a major role in the distribution of raw glass. (361 words).

Review: Arab Conquests and Early Islamic Historiography: The Futuh al-Buldan of al-Baladhuri, by Ryan J. Lynch

Review: <i>Arab Conquests and Early Islamic Historiography: The Futuh al-Buldan of al-Baladhuri</i>, by Ryan J. Lynch

Interpretation of the concept zuhd (asceticism) in the early islamic period

Interpretation of the concept zuhd (asceticism) in the early islamic period

Love, Sex and Marriage in the Jewish Magic of Late Antiquity and the Early Islamic Period

Love, Sex and Marriage in the Jewish Magic of Late Antiquity and the Early Islamic Period

The Oases of Egypt's Western Desert from Byzantine to Islamic Rule: Problems and New Perspectives

Once a part of Byzantine Egypt, the oases of Egypt's Western Desert acquired the status of an independent kingdom in the early Islamic period and retained this status at least until the advent of the Fatimid dynasty. As I argue in this article, a nuanced interpretation of a limited dossier of Greco-Latin and Arabic texts (consisting mostly of literary sources) yields insight into the mechanisms behind the political and administrative changes that the Egyptian oases underwent after the collapse of Byzantine rule following the Arab conquest of Egypt.

Embedding Conquest: Naturalizing Muslim Rule in the Early Islamic Empire (Project Report)

The ERC-funded research project »Embedding Conquest«, based at Leiden University, studies the mechanics by which early Islamic rule took root in a tapestry of diverse territories and different social contexts. Based on a large corpus of documentary and literary texts, especially letters, the research team has identified elements of political, territorial, and institutional cohesion stemming from interpersonal ties of loyalty and dependency binding individuals to each other and to the state. This contribution presents the project’s main scope and achievements. Additionally, it focuses on multilingualism, highlighting the participation of people from different religious groups in shaping early Islamic rule, in line with this special issue’s focus on collaboration among Muslims, Jews, and Christians as colleagues in the early Islamic period.

Flasks and fish

For more than 600 years Aqaba flasks were manufactured at Aila. In the Roman, Byzantine and early Islamic periods they occur at a fair number of sites in the southern Levant, in particular in the Arava Valley and the Negev desert. A flask with fish residue was discovered in a domestic context at Petra. The residue was identified as garum prepared from Red Sea fish. The evidence for the production of fish sauce at Aila raises the question of whether flasks and fish products are interconnected. It is suggested here that the wide distribution of flasks is related to the export of garum from Aila. Admittedly, so far the suggestion is largely hypothetical; however, the importance of regional fish trade and consumption, attested at many inland sites, and the fishing facilities on the Red Sea point to a prevailing diet of fish products.