Early Mother-child Interaction Research Articles

Early Mother-Child Interaction Flexibility Predicts Adolescent Psychological Adjustment.

Although greater mother-child interaction flexibility has been linked with overall better adjustment within early childhood and adolescence, whether this link persists across the two developmental periods remains unknown. This longitudinal study examined mother-toddler flexibility in affective and behavioral exchanges as predictors of adolescents' externalizing and internalizing symptoms. Sample included 128 families with their 33-month-old toddlers (52% female), of whom 67 returned in adolescence (M age = 13.25 years, SD = 0.59). Greater affective flexibility during play and behavioral flexibility during snack predicted fewer parent-reported externalizing (but not internalizing) symptoms ten years later, controlling for the positivity-negativity of mother-toddler interactions, early-childhood adjustment, and mother-adolescent flexibility. The findings highlight the unique, prospective role of early-life caregiving flexibility in mitigating adolescents' behavioral problems.

Development of the Culturally Affirming and Responsive Experiences (CARE) Measure: Observing Responsiveness and Ethnic-Racial Cultural Socialization in Mother-Child Interactions.

The existing literature on the importance of maternal responsiveness and the growing body of literature supporting early ethnic-racial cultural socialization highlight the need for an observational measure of how they co-occur during mother-child interactions. This study presents the development and initial validation of the Culturally Affirming and Responsive Experiences (CARE) measure, an observational measure of the presence and quality of responsiveness and ethnic-racial cultural socialization within early mother-child interactions. Pilot study results with 103 racially and ethnically diverse mother-child dyads demonstrated initial reliability and validity of the CARE measure. Implications of applying the CARE measure to early mother-child interactions to assess quality of responsiveness and ethnic-racial cultural socializations are discussed.

Monitoring Early Mother–Child Interactions in a Play Situation through Video Recording: A Literature Review of Tools

Monitoring Early Mother–Child Interactions in a Play Situation through Video Recording: A Literature Review of Tools

Changes in patterns of Early Mother-Child Interaction: A longitudinal study of the first 18 months of life

ObjectiveThe main objective of the present longitudinal study is to describe the progression of early adult-child interactions between the first and second years of life. Changes identified in interactions are described, focusing on both the qualitative aspects of maternal responses, as well as maternal response latency to the child's behavior using a microanalytical methodology that collected data on maternal and child behavior in real-time without losing sight of the temporal dimension. ParticipantsThis study examined 52 mother-child dyads from intact families that presented no psychological, social, or biological risk factors at 6, 12 and 18 months of age. InstrumentCITMI-R (early mother-child interaction coding system, revised edition) was used to assess early mother-infant interactions during free play sessions between mother and child the. ResultsThe results indicate that some components of maternal sensitivity improve as children progress towards the second year of life, detecting an increase in sensitive maternal behavior and a decrease in intrusive behavior in the evolutive observed period; moreover, regarding latency of maternal response, we observed that mothers of older children give more time for their children to explore, which stimulates autonomy. Finally, the implication of these results for intervention directed to optimizing early adult-child interactions are addressed.

Association between childhood maltreatment and attachment disorganization in young adulthood: The protective role of early mother-child interactions

BackgroundIndividuals who experience chronic relational trauma within the parent-child relationship are at risk of developing disorganized representations of attachment relationships in the form of Hostile-Helpless (HH) states of mind. While this association is well recognized theoretically, few studies to date have empirically tested predictors of HH states of mind. ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to examine whether retrospective self-reports of maltreatment and the quality of mother-child affective communication assessed in childhood predict HH states of mind in young adulthood. MethodsThe sample was composed of 66 young adults from a low-income community sample, who had been taking part in a longitudinal project since they were preschoolers. ResultsResults indicate that childhood maltreatment experiences significantly predict HH states of mind and that the quality of mother-child affective communication serves a protective role in the association between childhood maltreatment severity and adult attachment disorganization. ConclusionThis study is one of the first to prospectively examine how the quality of mother-child affective communication in childhood relates to attachment disorganization in young adulthood. Our results highlight the importance of providing support to families in which the child is at risk of experiencing relational trauma, with a particular focus on improving the quality of parent-child interactions.

Early Risk of Tobacco Smoke Exposure and Preschoolers' Hot and Cool Inhibitory Control: Promotive and Protective Roles of Maternal Positivity in Early Mother-child Interaction.

Early tobacco smoke exposure (TSE) in utero and/or during the first years after birth poses threats to the development of child executive functioning and self-regulation skills, including inhibitory control. Efforts are still needed to examine under what conditions such effects may occur and thus identify modifiable intervention targets. In addition, a distinction between cool and hot inhibitory control is also important to obtain greater nuance in such links. The cool inhibitory control refers to children's suppression of prepotent automatic responses to a distracting stimulus in solving arbitrary and decontextualized problems, whereas the hot inhibitory control refers to children's control of impulse in motivationally and emotionally high-stake situations. Using data derived from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, we examined the links between early risk of TSE and preschoolers' hot and cool inhibitory control and tested the potential promotive/protective roles of maternal positivity in early mother-child interactions. Results indicate that early risk of TSE was negatively linked to child cool inhibitory control when maternal positivity was low, but this link was nonsignificant when maternal positivity was high (i.e., the protective role of maternal positivity). The link between early risk of TSE and child later hot inhibitory control was not moderated by maternal positivity; instead, early risk of TSE and maternal positivity were negatively and positively associated with child hot inhibitory control above and beyond each other, respectively (i.e., the promotive role of maternal positivity). Accordingly, building a tobacco-free environment during pregnancy and infancy likely yields long-term benefits for child self-regulation development. Improving early mothering may offset the negative link between early TSE and child cool inhibitory control and also facilitate child hot inhibitory control even in the face of early TSE.

Assessment and determinants of acute post-caesarean section pain in a tertiary facility in Ghana.

Caesarean sections (CS) feature prominently in obstetric care and have impacted positively on maternal / neonatal outcomes globally including Ghana. However, in spite of documented increasing CS rates in the country, there are no studies assessing the adequacy of post-CS pain control. This study assessed the adequacy of post-CS pain management as well as factors influencing this outcome. Additionally, post-CS analgesia prescription and serving habits of doctors and nurses were also described to help fill existing knowledge gaps. Pain scores of 400 randomly selected and consenting post-CS women at a tertiary facility in Ghana were assessed at 6-12 hours post-CS at rest and with movement and at 24-36 hours post-CS with movement using a validated visual analog scale (VAS) from February 1, 2015 to April 8, 2015. Participant characteristics including age, marital status and duration of CS were obtained using pretested questionnaires and patient records review. Descriptive statistics were presented as frequencies and proportions. Associations between background characteristics and the outcome variables of adequacy of pain control at 6-12 hours post-CS at rest and with movement and at 24-36 hours post-CS with movement were analysed using Chi-square and Fisher's exact tests and logistic regression methods. Adequate pain control was defined as VAS scores ≤5. At 6-12 hours post-CS (at rest), equal proportions of participants had adequate and inadequate pain control (50.1% vrs 49.9%). Over the same time period but with movement, pain control was deemed inadequate in 93% of respondents (369/396). Women who had one previous surgery [OR 0.47 95%CI 0.27, 0.82; p = 0.008] and those whose CS lasted longer than 45 mins [OR 0.39 95% CI 0.24, 0.62; p<0.001] had lower odds of reporting adequate pain control. Women prescribed 12-hourly and 8-hourly doses of pethidine had only 23.5% (12/51) and 10.3% (3/29) served as prescribed respectively. At 24-36 hours post CS, adequate pain control was reported by 85.3% (326/382) of participants. Pain management was deemed inadequate within the first 12 hours post-CS with potential implications for early mother-child interaction. Appreciable numbers of participants did not have their analgesics served as prescribed. Adjunct pain control measures should be explored and healthcare workers must be encouraged to pay more attention to patients' pain relief needs.

Impact of maternal emotional experiences at birth and self-regulation in preterm children: The role of early interactions

BackgroundPreterm birth can constitute an unexpected interruption of the transition to motherhood that can impact on a mother's well-being and her subsequent interactions with her child and, thus, be an important risk factor for the infant's emotional development. Aimsthis study aims to shed light on early mother–child interactions, influenced by maternal symptomatology after childbirth, that can compromise a child's self-regulation ability. MethodA battery of self-report questionnaires was administered to 246 mothers a few days after their babies' birth. At 3 months of corrected infant age, mother–infant interactions were assessed using the GRS scales through video recording. At 12 and 24 months of corrected age, Bayley-III scales were administered to assess children's self-regulation ability. ResultsSignificant correlations were found among maternal symptomatology and GRS dimensions in ELBW children. Regressions results showed how GRS scores were predicted by various POMS subscales. ConclusionsOur results underline that maternal symptomatology could be a risk factor for the co-construction of interactive exchanges between mother and premature baby and for the long-term development of the infant's self-regulation ability.

A Longitudinal Study of Language Use During Early Mother-Child Interactions in Spanish-Speaking Families Experiencing Low Income.

This longitudinal study assessed continuity and stability of productive language (vocabulary and grammar) and discourse features (turn-taking; asking and responding to questions) during mother-child play. Parent-child language use in 119 Spanish-speaking, Mexican immigrant mothers and their children at two ages (M = 2.5 and 3.6 years) was evaluated from transcriptions of interactions. Child productive language significantly increased over the year, whereas mothers showed commensurate increases in vocabulary diversity but very little change in grammatical complexity. Mother-child discourse was characterized by discontinuity: Mothers decreased their turn length and asked fewer questions while children increased on both measures. Rates of responding to questions remained high for both mothers and children even as children increased and mothers decreased over time. Mothers and children showed significant rank-order stability in productive language and measures of discourse. Mothers' rate of asking questions and children's responses to questions during the first interaction predicted children's receptive vocabulary a year later. As children become more sophisticated communicators, language input remains important, with discourse features growing in relevance. Children's early opportunities to respond to parents' questions in the context of play benefit their language skills. This work extends the evidence base from monolingual English-speaking families and is interpreted in the context of prior research on parenting practices in U.S. families of Mexican origin.

Incarcerated mothers' views of their children's experience: A qualitative study in French nurseries

In France, young children of incarcerated women live with their mothers in prison in specific units called nurseries, up to the age of 18 months. Only a few studies have examined the impact of this environment on these children. This study sought to explore through mothers' narratives how they perceive their children to experience this environment and how it affects their development. We used semistructured interviews to collect the perceptions of 25 mothers about their children's experience of daily life in 12 different prison nurseries in France. Interpretative phenomenological analysis was used to explore the data. According to mothers, prison is a sensorially aggressive environment for children that may impair the children's sensory abilities. The children's and mothers' emotional perceptions of anger, sadness, insecurity and imprisonment intertwine. Prison is home for these children, which leads them to establish strong bonds with this inside world-prison staff, other inmates-but to develop reluctances and concern about exploring the outside world. The prison's sensorial environment may overlay the sensorial environment created by the mother, interfering with early mother-child interactions and leading to emotional misattunement. The gap between what the mother and the child each feel to be their home, and the social group they feel they belong to, causes pain to the mothers. This could alter their mandate of being a protective shield that could reduce the traumatic potential of the carceral environment on their babies. These mothers' sentences must be reconsidered for the sake of their children.

Mother-Infant Interaction Kinect Analysis (MIIKA): An automatic kinematic-based methodology for the investigation of interpersonal distance during early exchanges

Interpersonal distance is a core aspect of mother-child interaction. While conventional measures based on human coders do not fully capture the dynamics of this feature, computational methods provide automatic measures which can detect even small changes and more accurate estimates both spatially and temporally. Using RGB-D sensors (Microsoft Kinect V2), the present study describes a setup to automatically examine interpersonal distance during mother-child interactions, termed Mother-Infant Interaction Kinect Analysis (MIIKA). First, the laboratory setting and the data extraction method are described. By using an ad-hoc algorithm for kinematic data extraction, MIIKA returns three metrics: barycenter position (distance and velocity of approach and separation), movements (number of small, medium and large approaches and separations) and contributions (proportional contributions of mother and child to approaches and separations). Secondly, preliminary MIIKA metrics are described for a non-clinical mother-child dyad as an exemplification of the protocol. As interpersonal distance can be affected by contingent situations, we detected mother-infant full skeleton during three interactional contexts characterized by different kinds of dyadic exchanges: a free play session, a task-oriented activity and an emotionally arousing condition. Results highlighted similarities and differences between the three interactional contexts. MIIKA appears to be a promising setup to automatically examine interpersonal distance in early mother-child interactions.

The temporal dimension in the understanding of maternal sensitivity in caregiver-infant interactions: The ‘Early Mother-Child Interaction Coding System’

Caregiver-child interaction is known to play a central role in children’s socioemotional development, yet the diversity of measures commonly used to evaluate it call into question the nature of the construct being assessed. Contingency within caregiver-child interactions has been identified as a key dyadic process that requires taking a temporal perspective to evaluating interactions. The Early Mother-Child Interaction Coding System is a psychometrically sound measure that sequentially code the flow of interactive and non-interactive behaviours within a caregiver-infant system. Its use of the framework of nonlinear dynamical systems (NDS) expands our understanding of contingent caregiver-infant dyadic behaviour.

Proximal Interpersonal Processes in Early Childhood, Socioemotional Capacities in Middle Childhood, and Behavioral and Social Adaptation in Early Adolescence: A Process Model toward Greater Specificity.

Early proximal interpersonal processes in central microsystems have been widely linked to child subsequent adaptation. What remains sparse is research spanning multiple developmental stages and examining unique, relative implications of distinct early proximal interpersonal processes for child later adjustment in various domains and the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral mechanisms underlying such associations. Using NICHD SECCYD data, a process model was tested in which negativities and positivities in three early proximal interpersonal processes (i.e., mother-child, child care provider-child, and child care peer interactions at 6-36months) were simultaneously linked to child internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and social relationship quality in early adolescence (6th grade) via child hostile attribution bias, emotion reactivity, and social skills in middle childhood (3rd grade). Social skills mediated the associations between positivities/negativities in early mother-child and peer interactions and later behavioral and social adaptation. Emotion reactivity was identified as a process via which negativities in early peer interactions predicted later behavioral problems. Maternal negativities were positively associated with hostile attribution biases, but such biases did not relate to later adaptation. We also identified a negative direct link between maternal positivities and later externalizing problems and a positive direct link between maternal positivities and later social relationship quality. No effects emerged for child care providers-child interactions. Improving early mother-child and peer interactions may promote adaptation in early adolescence. For children with poor early mother-child and peer interactions, training socioemotional capacities may be a way to diminish consequences of early negative interpersonal processes.

Sequential coding of maternal sensitivity: application of nonlinear dynamic analyses and reliability

In infant development, maternal sensitivity is a central construct in the study of the processes involved in the caregiver-infant relationship and child attachment. The relevance of these dyadic processes for infant and later child development requires the advancing in the measurement of maternal sensitivity. The measurement of this construct, that reveals its complexity through different ‘windows’ using different approaches and operational definitions, has brought researchers’ attention into the methodological arena. Mother–infant interaction has been mainly quantified through rating scales and sequential strategies using observational methodology. The present study is part of a research program whose purpose is to measure maternal sensitivity dimensions using sequential coding in real time, the free-play paradigm and the early mother–child interaction coding system (CITMI-R: by its Spanish initials) instrument. This study was designed to further the analysis of the quality of the data obtained by this coding system. For this purpose, six trained observers coded fifty-seven mother–infant free-play episodes. The reliability of their coding was estimated: firstly, examining the inter-coder agreement with the Alignment Kappa, thus, incorporating the temporal dimension of the measurement. Secondly, analyzing the inter-coder agreement on parameters that consider the sequential and temporal organization by applying variables derived from the State Space Grid methodology and the nonlinear dynamic system approach: Contingency, through dyadic events, visits to them, predictability and duration of event, visit and dyadic behavioral states. The results indicated acceptable inter-observer reliability values based on the standards for use on parameters of interest in the study of sensitivity.

Positive mother‐child interactions and parenting styles were associated with lower screen time in early childhood

This study examined long-term associations between mother-child interactions and parenting styles and electronic screen time. We studied 280 healthy children (53.2% girls) enrolled at a mean age of 36±0.4months from February 2015 to September 2016. The study included retrospective data on 267 children who had been recruited from medical facilities in Thailand at 6months of age. Mother-child interaction, parenting styles and screen time were assessed at various ages and path analyses were performed to elucidate the directionality and relationships between the variables. Increased mother-child interaction at 18months of age was positively associated with less screen time at 2 and 3years of age. Likewise, nurturing authoritative parenting at 3years of age was directly related to lower media exposure at 4years. The total screen time at younger ages had positive direct relationships with relaxed permissive and strict authoritarian parenting styles, but negative direct relationships with nurturing authoritative parenting in subsequent years. Early mother-child interaction and nurturing authoritative parenting were associated with subsequent decreased screen time, while media exposure at the age of two was related to relaxed permissive and strict authoritarian parenting at 3years of age.

Feasibility and acceptability of an early home visit intervention aimed at supporting a positive mother–infant relationship for mothers at risk of postpartum depression

Perinatal depression is associated with difficulties in the early mother-child interaction and negative child outcome. The aim of this study was to assess the feasibility and acceptability of the Newborn Behavioral Observation (NBO) System included in a home visiting programme at well-baby clinics in Norway and to examine compliance with the study protocol for a future clinical trial. The target group was pregnant women at risk for postpartum depression and their partners. An open-label study was conducted. A total of 15 pregnant women and 10 partners were recruited during 24-28 weeks of gestation. The NBO was conducted in three home visits during the first four weeks after birth. Data were collected from surveys responded to by parents and healthcare workers at six time-points and from video recordings of mother-infant interaction by the Emotional Availability (EA) Scale. The parents' experience of the intervention and data collection was investigated by qualitative analyses of five interviews. The NBO is an individualised, relationship-based method aimed to strengthen the emotional bond between the parents and their infants and enhance the parents' alliance with the healthcare worker. Intervention completion was 97%. Data collection completion was 100% at baseline and the second time-point and dropped to 50% for the mothers and 40% for the fathers at the sixth time-point. However, 79% (11 of 14) of the mothers and infants took part in video recordings for the EA coding at 4 months postpartum (sixth time-point). The usefulness questionnaires showed high acceptability among both parents and healthcare workers. This study showed that the NBO conducted in home visits is a feasible and acceptable intervention for both parents and healthcare workers within the well-baby clinic services. A future clinical trial protocol needs adjustments related to data collection.

Maternal behavior predicts neural underpinnings of inhibitory control in preschoolers.

Separate lines of research have revealed that the rapid development of inhibitory control in the preschool period is closely tied to normative brain development and influenced by early mother-child interactions. One potential theory is that maternal behavior in the context of early interactions influences the neural underpinnings of inhibitory control in development, with implications for child behavior. The purpose of this paper was to examine whether maternal emotional support, measured during a mother-child problem-solving game, predicted child neural responses (frontal-central N2 event-related potential) and behavioral performance (discrimination index, d') in a go/no-go task of inhibitory control in a large, diverse sample of mother-child dyads (N=276) observed in children's last year of preschool (mean age=56months). Results of a structural equation model revealed significant direct effects from maternal emotional support to child right hemisphere frontal-central N2 responses to no-go (inhibitory control) trials; greater observed emotional support predicted larger N2 responses. Larger right hemisphere N2 responses to no-go trials were also associated with better overall observed task performance (d'). A test of indirect effects from maternal emotional support to child observed performance via right hemisphere N2 responses was significant, suggesting that underlying neurophysiology is one mechanism through which maternal emotional support is associated with a child's rapidly developing inhibitory control behavior in the preschool period. This work joins a growing literature demonstrating that caregiver behavior within a "normative" range is an important environmental factor contributing to the development of neural processes supporting child functioning.

Relationship between early mother-child interaction and children's social competence development at 42 months old: : A longitudinal perspective(Paper & Abstract September 17th)

Relationship between early mother-child interaction and children's social competence development at 42 months old: : A longitudinal perspective(Paper & Abstract September 17th)

Timing and content of interventions to enhance cognitive performance of very-low-birthweight children.

This commentary is on the original article by Grunewaldt et al. on pages 195–201 of this issue. Children born at very low birthweight (VLBW) are at an increased risk for altered brain development or injury. This risk is associated with increased cognitive, attention, and behavioural impairments, and poorer academic achievement. These impairments have been found to persist into adulthood1 and adversely affect life chances. For many years, the focus of interventions to improve cognitive abilities and behaviour of VLBW children has been to improve early mother-child interaction and to provide increased cognitive stimulation during infancy or toddlerhood. However, these early interventions have had limited long-term success for VLBW children.2 An alternative is to consider interventions at a time of emerging higher cognitive functions (such as at preschool or school age) and to focus on underlying mechanisms such as the ability to select, retain, process, and plan actions, and to anticipate the consequences of these actions. The ability to hold, analyse, and manipulate information long enough for processing requires memory, often referred to as working memory. Problems with working memory have been reported to be more frequent in VLBW children and related to academic achievement. Grunewaldt et al.3 conducted a controlled study to evaluate whether a computerized visual spatial memory training program applied over a 5-week period showed positive effects on working memory and generalized to other functions (e.g. attention, language, learning) or daily living skills and problem behaviour in VLBW preschool children approximately 6 months after the end of the intervention. The working memory intervention did exactly what it said ‘on the label’: it improved visuospatial and verbal working memory. The Grunewaldt et al. study is a small trial, using a matched rather than randomized comparison group for a 7-month follow-up and can be considered as a proof of principle that adaptive working memory training can work in VLBW preschool children. However, the adaptive training did not generalize to problem behaviour such as attention problems or other areas of daily living. Nevertheless, the authors speculate that these sustained effects over 6 months on working memory may be beneficial when the children start school and may be positive for their scholastic and academic achievement. Grunewaldt et al. and other recent studies raise two important issues that need exploration in future research before recommending adaptive working memory training for widespread implementation. First, does memory training generalize to academic achievement and thus real life improvements beyond standard memory assessments? The ‘proof of the pudding is in the eating’; it requires much larger trials with follow-up over years and academic performance assessed with achievement tests and particularly, teacher ratings. Such trials are currently under way4 and the findings eagerly awaited. Second, when should interventions take place for VLBW children? Previous research has indicated that interventions in infancy may have short-term but not positive long-term effects on cognitive or academic performance.2 It is not surprising that interventions in the first few months of life may not be enough to solve the complex issue of cognitive deficits in preterm children at school age. This highlights the need for intervention at around school age, either before school entry or early on in school. Recent evidence from an observational study suggests that cognitive stimulation and increased parenting sensitivity around school entry is associated with improved academic achievement in VLBW adolescents.5 This observation requires study with a randomized controlled trial to be certain of causality. However, it suggests that it may not be just the content but the timing of interventions that is important to improve academic achievement. Possibly, interventions around school entry for VLBW children and their families that combine adaptive working memory training and efforts that increase parental sensitivity may improve cognitive and social skills, and reduce schooling problems.

Communicative interactions between visually impaired mothers and their sighted children: analysis of gaze, facial expressions, voice and physical contacts.

Social and emotional development of infants and young children is largely based on the communicative interaction with their mother, or principal caretaker (Trevarthen ). The main modalities implied in this early communication are voice, facial expressions and gaze (Stern ). This study aims at analysing early mother-child interactions in the case of visually impaired mothers who do not have access to their children's gaze and facial expressions. Spontaneous play interactions between seven visually impaired mothers and their sighted children aged between 6 months and 3 years were filmed. These dyads were compared with a control group of sighted mothers and children analysing four modalities of communication and interaction regulation: gaze, physical contacts, verbal productions and facial expressions. The visually impaired mothers' facial expressions differed from the ones of sighted mothers mainly with respect to forehead movements, leading to an impoverishment of conveyed meaning. Regarding the other communicative modalities, results suggest that visually impaired mothers and their children use compensatory strategies to guaranty harmonic interaction despite the mother's impairment: whereas gaze results the main factor of interaction regulation in sighted dyads, physical contacts and verbal productions assume a prevalent role in dyads with visually impaired mothers. Moreover, visually impaired mother's children seem to be able to differentiate between their mother and sighted interaction partners, adapting differential modes of communication. The results of this study show that, in spite of the obvious differences in the modes of communication, visual impairment does not prevent a harmonious interaction with the child.