Early Meiji Period Research Articles

From “Defilement” to “Modernity”: How Japan's Encounter with the West Brought Beef to the Table

The long Tokugawa – Meiji transition (1850s – 1880s) is arguably one of the most profound socio-economic transitions that Japan underwent in its history. This paper uses beef consumption in Japan as a lens to further investigate the players involved in this transition. Historically more eschewed than other types of meat and tightly associated with the notion of the “other,” beef became an embodiment of progress and modernity during the Meiji Period. Through tracing the historical shift in the Japanese perception of beef, this paper argues that the evolution of beef consumption corresponds to the radically shifting attitudes of the Japanese towards the West. To address the current research gap in the reception and integration of beef into Japanese cuisine, this paper starts the investigation from the late Tokugawa period. The early story of a “beef culture” reflects that a large part of Japan's modernization efforts was initiated by pioneering merchants and curious individuals in the late Tokugawa treaty ports. The paper also examines the diverse reactions of common Japanese toward beef, an essential part of the larger “westernization” campaign during the early Meiji period. Through popular folk literature and artworks, journals from western visitors, and an array of sources on Japanese food market, this paper illustrates that as Japan encountered Western culture in the nineteenth century, her people simultaneously resisted and adapted to it, creating a unique blend of tradition and modernity that was embodied in dishes like gyūnabe (beef stew).

Amabiko: The Oceanic Ape and Its Rhizomatic Body

Abstract The amabiko アマビコ is a chimerical aquatic hybrid similar to an oceanic ape with oracular and thaumaturgic powers, which inspired ludic and religious micro-practices in the late Edo (1603–1868) and early Meiji periods (1868–1912). The present study investigates the genealogy of the amabiko and the pivotal role played by itinerant sellers known as news criers (yomiuri) in the diffusion of images and stories concerning the amabiko, its worshiping protocols, and talismanic effects. Beyond the philological analysis of written documents, I also examine hitherto understudied prints and local gazetteers’ illustrations to understand the salvific value and “ocular luck” (ganpuku) associated with the amabiko. Moreover, this article shows how the socio-religious milieu concerning the amabiko had a trans-social nature, spanning both elite and subaltern classes. The amabiko’s physicality also provides a unique opportunity to explore the uncanny and polysemic contact areas between human and nonhuman bodies.

Characteristics of “Daikoku‐bashira” and atrium of townhouses in Takayama—Correlation between the dimensions and position of the maximum section column and atrium

AbstractThe maximum section column of townhouses in Takayama can be classified into type A [earthen floor type] and type B [living space type]. The dimensions of maximum section columns tended to increase as the plane scale increased and the frontage widened. The atrium area tended to expand in the early Meiji period. We observed that the form of a maximum section column standing in one straight line at a rectangle atrium became the form of a maximum section column standing crossing‐axis in the plane of the structure of ridge direction and the span at irregularly shaped atrium, together complicating the plane and atrium shapes.

The Concept of ‘Oriental Despotism’ in Modern Japanese Intellectual Discourse

This article explores the historical semantic changes of the concept ‘Oriental despotism’ in modern Japan. In premodern Japanese political discourses, the term sensei (despotic rule) was already widely known among Confucian scholars via the ancient Chinese classic Zuo Zhuan. However, it was the introduction and wide circulation of Montesquieu’s De l‘esprit des lois (The Spirit of Law, 1748) in the early Meiji period that instilled in the modern Japanese language the concept Toyoteki senseishugi (Oriental despotism), a complex orientalist explanation of Asia’s authoritarian system of rules. Though first a concept that informed the Meiji authority of the civilizational hierarchy of different forms of government and warned of the need for constitutional democracy, Oriental despotism became, in the course of Japan’s growing encounters with its Asian neighbours after the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), the theoretical premise of a ‘stagnant Asia’ and served as an ideological justification for Japan’s expansion in Asia. This article analyses the different perspectives, arguments, and rhetorical manoeuvres of the Japanese political and social scientists who most actively contributed to the discourse on Oriental despotism from the early Meiji period to the postwar era. It identifies four independent yet related discourses on Oriental despotism in modern Japan and argues that the influx to Japan in the 1930s and 1940s of theories on society’s modern transformation had ultimately determined how this concept would be interpreted, applied, and understood in postwar Japan.

Rethinking the Interdependence of Buddhism and the State in Late Edo and Meiji Japan

This article asks how the Buddhist paradigm of the interdependence between the Buddha’s law and the ruler’s law was modified over the centuries and reinterpreted by nineteenth-century authors in the face of rapid political, social, and epistemic changes. An analysis of relevant texts reveals continuities as well as discontinuities. While the paradigm’s basic function of guaranteeing autonomy and protection to Buddhist institutions remained largely unchanged, remarkable transformations in the argumentation are evident. Despite, or because of, the precarious position of Buddhism in the early Meiji period, Buddhist authors from this era choose an apologetic strategy. With some slight differences, they emphasize almost exclusively the intramundane benefits of Buddhism and thus defend themselves against the accusation that Buddhism is solely relevant to otherworldly matters. The most radical innovation, however, is the assertion that all secular norms and rules of governance are ultimately Buddhist in origin.

Performing The Politics of Translation in Modern Japan: Staging The Resistance by Aragorn Quinn

Reviewed by: Performing The Politics of Translation in Modern Japan: Staging The Resistance by Aragorn Quinn David Jortner PERFORMING THE POLITICS OF TRANSLATION IN MODERN JAPAN: STAGING THE RESISTANCE. By Aragorn Quinn. London and New York: Routledge, 2020. 169 pp. Hardcover, $128.00; paperback, $39.16. "Political theatre" is a term loaded with a variety of meanings. In the history of Japanese theatre, especially in the Meiji and Taishō eras, political theatre is often used in conversations about the Jiyū Gekijō (Free Theatre, 1909–1919) and the Tsukiji Shōgekijō (Tsukiji Little Theatre, 1924–1928) as well as the work of playwrights and artists such [End Page 421] as Hijikata Tatsumi and Kubo Sakae. Inherent in this discussion is the connection between political, modern, and "Western;" for many of these artists modernity was inimically linked to political activism and new forms of theatre. As Aragorn Quinn aptly demonstrates in his work Performing the Politics of Translation in Modern Japan, during the early Meiji Restoration era performance and memory was deeply connected with explorations of term such as liberty (jiyū) and revolution (kakumei). The text demonstrates how the engagement of these words and the world of performance extends from the Restoration through the Proletarian Theatre movement and into the postwar world. With this book Quinn has done a deep dive into the intersections between performance, politics, and language. In doing so, he has created an important resource for scholars of Japanese and political theatre. Quinn's book is divided into 5 chapters, but it is better seen as an exploration of three different periods in Japanese theatre: The Freedom and People's Rights Movement, the Proletarian Movement, and the Occupation/postwar period. What connects all of these periods in Quinn's argument is the connection between their performances and the differing ideas (and translations) of political/cultural terms such as "liberty" and "revolution." The first chapter looks at how "liberty" was translated in the early Meiji period and how that manifested itself through productions of William Shakespeare's plays and the performances of Kawakami Otojirō. One of the highlights in this chapter is the translation, publication, and production histories of works such as Tsubouchi Shōyō's The Amazing Story of Caesar: The Legacy of the Sharpness of Liberty's Sword (Jiyū no tachi nagori no kireaji: Shiizaru kidan), his translation of Julius Caesar, as well as Kawashima Keizō's The Rise and Fall of Rome (Rōma seisuikan), his translation of the same play. This chapter also includes how these translations were connected with the Association for Theatre Reform (Engeki kairyō kai). In addition, Quinn illustrates how this terminology was used by Kawakami Otojirō and by other political theatre (shōshi shibai) performances. The second chapter explores plays of the Meiji Restoration. One of the more interesting elements of this chapter is a reclamation of Sasaki Takamaru's place in theatre history. Sasaki was involved with the Forerunner Theater (Seunkuza) as well as the Avant-Garde Theater (Zen'eiza). Much of the chapter is devoted to an analysis of his play The Secret Account of Tsukuba (Tsukuba hiroku). One of the delights of Quinn's text is his inclusion of segments of the play in both Japanese and in his translation; one wishes for a complete translation of the play. Quinn's analysis of Sasaki gives an interesting reading as to why the Proletarian Theatre movement failed to foment revolution and can prove as an interesting model for other leftist writers of this period. [End Page 422] Chapter Three looks at plays which take the attempted assassination of Itagaki Taisuke in 1882 as their primary subject matter. For Quinn, "these plays sit at important transitions in performance conventions in modern Japanese theater and are uniquely situated to highlight the inter-relationship of … seemingly disparate performance modes" (p. 81), such as kyūgeki (old theatre), sōshi, and shingeki (new theatre). In this chapter Quinn raises many interesting possible readings of leftist theatre while looking at the texts of one night pickle plays (ichiyazuke) by Kawakami, Sudō Sadanori, and Sasaki. This chapter argues for several interesting ideas about expanding Japanese theatre scholarship—he argues for a "long nineteenth century" approach to...

Taste of Civilization: The Acceptance of Beef Appeared in Aguranabe in the Early Meiji Era

This study is to examine through Kanagaki Robun’s Aguranabe how beef, which was considered a symbol of civilization, was accepted and what changes were made in society as a result in the early Meiji period. At the time of the publication of Aguranabe, Japanese society was implementing Westernization policies with the aim of “civilization enlightenment” and “national prosperity and defense” along with rapid changes in the political system. The primary elements discussed in Aguranabe are as follows. First, Aguranabe details the process of resolving the “Kegare,” which was considered to be a hindrance to the acceptance of beef. In the beginning of the Japanese Westernization campaigns, the government and educated individuals introduced beef in terms of a “new civilization,” which can be said to have been somewhat successful. The characters in Aguranabe testify that beef is a symbol of civilization as well as a healthy food product to consume. The second element in Aguranabe describes the irony in how the government and the highly educated at the time insisted on accepting a Western diet for those in power, however, the general public was also participating in this movement through consuming a beef “hot pot.” This point seems to have been overlooked thus far. It is also noteworthy that the beef hot pot that the general populace consumed was in a form that was more acceptable to them, rather than adopting the unfamiliar foreign cooking method and utensils. The third element that Aguranabe delineates is the perception of the “individual” that appeared in the space of a beef hot pot restaurant. The consumer experienced a sense of liberation by eating beef, overcoming status differences and becoming on par with those present. In particular, the Japanese populace predicted the birth of the individual that the Meiji society was constructing by their insistence of utilizing Western technology and expanding knowledge through newspapers.

Printing Landmarks: Popular Geography and "Meisho Zue" in Late Tokugawa Japan by Robert Goree

Reviewed by: Printing Landmarks: Popular Geography and "Meisho Zue" in Late Tokugawa Japan by Robert Goree R. Keller Kimbrough Printing Landmarks: Popular Geography and "Meisho Zue" in Late Tokugawa Japan. By Robert Goree. Harvard University Asia Center, 2020. 400 pages. ISBN: 9780674247871 (hardcover). Collectors, bibliographers, and even amateur aficionados of early modern Japanese woodblock-printed books tend to be familiar with the vast and varied genre of illustrated meisho zue "gazetteers," a distinctive type of popular publication that took the Japanese book market by storm from around the end of the eighteenth century. Indeed, meisho zue were printed in such great numbers that the shelves and catalogues of antiquarian book dealers today can be hard to peruse without encountering multiple examples from the genre. Nevertheless, until now there has been no book-length English-language study of these works, largely because of the confining nature of our own disciplinary boundaries and the difficulty of categorizing meisho zue—as literature, art, cartography, or some other publishing genre. Robert Goree's Printing Landmarks: Popular Geography and "Meisho Zue" in Late Tokugawa Japan remedies this omission by addressing the history and conventions of meisho zue from the eighteenth century through the early Meiji period (1868–1912). Goree's work is methodologically rigorous, insightful, and well researched in English and Japanese, and Goree rightly maintains that meisho zue, which he describes as a kind of "nonfictional fantasy geography," belongs to "the history of Japanese literature and cartography" (p. 67, emphasis in original). To make sense of an enormous and relatively diverse corpus of texts, Goree focuses on two foundational works: Akisato Ritō's Miyako meisho zue (Illustrated Collection of Famous Places in the Capital; 1780) and its sequel, Shūi Miyako meisho zue (More Famous Places in the Capital; 1787). Over the course of his introduction and five subsequent chapters, Goree discusses dozens of other contemporaneous works as well, providing a rich historical context for the principal objects of his study. The book presents a focused and clear central argument—that "the popularity of meisho zue lasted for decades because they were innovative maps of landmarks that advanced a convincing vision of abundance, experienced virtually by readers, in a format established by Ritō and sustained by others linked to him" (p. 7). The monograph's written style is scholarly, sophisticated, and engagingly journalistic, and for those with an interest in the history of Japanese books, it will be a pleasure to read. Better still, Printing Landmarks contains 125 mostly monochrome images of maps, meisho zue, and a wide variety of other woodblock-printed works (artistic prints, travel guides, picture books, and the like), providing a great visual depth to Goree's study and allowing readers to see and learn about a plethora of relatively obscure publications that they might have otherwise never encountered. In chapter 1, "The Reader as Virtual Traveler," Goree explores the concept of gayū (imaginary/dream travel; literally to "lie down and go" [p. 12]), which the [End Page 341] court noble Fujiwara no Takasuke (1741–1804) invoked in a preface to Shūi miyako meisho zue to articulate the work's appeal for contemporaneous audiences. Gayū is a key concept for Goree (as well as for the editors and consumers of meisho zue, he argues), and he pursues it throughout his study. As Goree explains, gayū "might be considered the equivalent to armchair travel in Western cultures, insofar as it rhetorically describes the power of books and other media to enable discovery of a place without visiting it" (p. 41). He further argues that Ritō and some of his successors promoted gayū as a clever "marketing strategy" to encourage "reading as a form of virtual travel" (p. 35). Goree associates gayū with a particular "mode of reading" (p. 66), and he attributes it—or the marketing of it—with the success of Miyako meisho zue and subsequent meisho zue in the marketplace of books. In chapter 2, "The Documentation and Display of Place," Goree focuses on editors, artists, and the editorial processes behind the compilation of meisho zue. Taking Miyako meisho zue again as his exemplary case, he argues that "meisho zue resonated with readers because they were compiled according...

Public Speaking and Serialized Novels: Kōdan and Social Movements in Early Meiji Tokyo

ABSTRACT The contribution of popular fiction writers (gesakusha) to the development of early Meiji literature has become more broadly acknowledged and examined. However, the distinctive contribution of oral performative storytelling traditions such as kōdan to the evolution of public speaking and serialized novels (tsuzukimono) has been largely overlooked. This article builds on existing scholarship to further explore the interaction between kōdan and two pivotal movements of the early Meiji period, the ‘Civilization and Enlightenment Movement’ and the ‘People’s Rights Movement’. In the case of the former, the relation of kōdan to the practice of public speaking (enzetsu) is examined. In the case of the second movement, the influence of kōdan on political speech making (seidan) is also explored, along with its relevance to the ‘political novel’ and the ensuing evolution of serialized novels in illustrated newspapers in the late 1880s.

‘松島開拓願’ 관련 “제4기 최종보고서”의 주장 비판

Shimane Prefecture's "Takeshima Issue Research Group", which was launched in 2005, has released the 4th term "Final Report on Investigation on the Takeshima Issue" this time. This paper contains a review and criticism on the content related to ‘Matsushima pioneering request(松島開拓願)’ contained in the report. The investigation of the people related to Ishibashi and Matsuzawa's 'Matsushima pioneering request' in the report examines the Japanese people's perception of Ulleungdo and Dokdo during the period from the early Meiji period to the beginning of Ulleungdo pioneering. It can be seen that the intention is to reinforce the argument. However, looking at the process of processing “Matsushima pioneering request” submitted to the Japanese government at the time, the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs was clearly aware that Ulleungdo was Korean territory. It is clear that he had However, in the 4th report, the intention to rationalize it is clearly revealed by arguing that the people related to “Matsushima pioneering request” at the time were not aware that “Matsushima(松島)” or “Takeshima(竹島)” were “Ulleungdo”. As such, the report not only discusses the territorial sovereignty over Dokdo based on the inaccurate geographical perception of Ulleungdo, but also describes the incorrect interpretation of the ‘Dajo-kan Directive’, which denies the Meiji government's state governance. Therefore, it can be seen that these studies by the Japanese side are only repeating the deterrence claim over Dokdo's sovereignty.

Integration of Nichiren Sects in the Taisho Era

Each of the various subsects of the Nichiren school refers to the sect or school that has Nichiren as its founder. From Nichiren’s time in the Kamakura period, his disciples formed an organization that expanded with the progress of time. In the Muromachi period, its priests of the sect were active in various places, and among them, a number of branches were formed based on differences in doctrine and disagreements over succession. The organization that emerged from these branches was organized by the head temple as a result of religious control during the Edo period, and then reborn as a modern sect as a result of the religious policies of the early Meiji period. Through this process, the Nichiren sects became nine in the Taisho period (1912–1926), and seven of them began concrete activities to unify them in 1914. These activities were triggered by the commemoration in 1902 of the 650th anniversary of the founding of Nichiren Buddhism, the subsequent rise of Nichiren shugi 日蓮主義 (Nichirenism), which became a social phenomenon, and the sect’s involvement in World War I. In this paper, I consider the integration activities conducted by each subsect of Nichiren’s followers during the Taisho era, including the background of the conference held in 1914 with the chief abbot of each subsect in attendance.

Ascetic Ressentiment: Historical consciousness and mountain politics in Northeastern Japan

ABSTRACT This article explores competing streams of historical consciousness in Mount Haguro, a sacred mountain in northeastern Japan known for its mountain ascetic traditions. Applying the notion of ressentiment (historical alienation) and resentment (ideological alienation) to the longue dureé of religious history in Mount Haguro, I demonstrate how contemporary conflicts in the mountain ascetic community are rooted not only in a historic rift between Shintō and Buddhism in the early Meiji period, but in a greater dynamic at play in Japanese religious history between nativism and cosmopolitanism.

“Newspaper Funerals” and popular protest in the early Meiji period

This article takes a closer look at the “newspaper funerals” held in 1882 in the city of Kōchi, protesting government censorship. The funerals were an early example of newspaper editors’ awareness of their medium as a tool to energize and steer a movement toward specific political aims, as well as an instrument to gain a foothold within the newly emerging “public sphere” in modern Japan.

Toba-Fushimi Revisited: Commemorating the Violence of the Restoration Moment

ABSTRACT This essay considers commemorative activity centered on the 1868 Battle of Toba-Fushimi, the first major engagement of the Boshin Civil War (1868–1869). This battle, which pitted the Tokugawa shogunate against forces loyal to the Kyoto court, ended in a decisive victory for loyalist forces. Nonetheless, although Toba-Fushimi had helped ensure the success of the Meiji Restoration, the new government made little effort to use the battle as a major component of its foundational mythology. The absence of major state intervention in either the memorialization of the battle or the preservation of the battlefield resulted in a commemorative vacuum that was filled by other actors – ranging from Tokugawa supporters to producers of popular culture. This essay addresses three periods in the history of Toba-Fushimi commemoration: the early Meiji period, when narratives of the battle first coalesced; the late Meiji and early Taishо̄ periods, when changed political circumstances and major anniversaries resulted in a surge of Toba-Fushimi-related memory activism; and the post-World War II era, when a diverse array of actors attempted (largely unsuccessfully) to resuscitate popular interest in the battle.

Japanese Universities’ Fraught Relationship with the Modern Chinese Language

ABSTRACT This study argues that the massive growing interest in Chinese language in Japanese universities in the 1990s was more complicated than it seemed. ‘Chinese fever’ at the beginning of the new millennium is best situated in the context of several ‘boom-and-bust’ cycles in Chinese language education that date back to the early Meiji Period when the Japanese university system was beginning to take shape. This focusses on three key transitions: 1) the early 1870s, when Monbushō assumed control of foreign language education from the Gaimushō (Ministry of Foreign Affairs); 2) the mid-1940s, when the Allied General Headquarters (GHQ) made policy decisions that compromised the Chinese studies that had slowly taken root in the pre-war system; and 3) the late 1990s when Monbushō advanced internationalization policies that compromised Chinese language initiatives while interest in the language was burgeoning. In each case, ‘homegrown’ Chinese studies were poised to make some kind of dramatic comeback; in each case the best efforts of Chinese language’s colorful protagonists were thwarted by politically-tinged government policy. This article contends that the western-oriented Japanese academy failed to nurture Chinese language education precisely at times when the environment for its growth was most fertile.

서양의 미술가들과 일본의 공부미술학교 : 일본 메이지 시대 초기, 미술교육 제도의 수립과정에 관하여

일본의 메이지 정부가 서양의 국가들과 대등한 근대국가 만들기를 위해 내건 근대화 프로젝트의 슬로건은 식산흥업과 부국강병을 통한 서양화와 문명개화의 완성이었다. 이를 위해 메이지 정부가 추진한 근대화 프로젝트는 일본 미술계에도 커다란 변화를 불러온다. 그러한 가운데 메이지 정부가 가장 먼저 손을 댄 사업이 ‘미술교육’에 대한 서양화이었으며 이를 제도화하는 것이었다. 이를 통하여 메이지 정부가 실현하고자 한 것은 서양의 정통한 미술을 습득하여 국가에 유용한 전문인력을 양성하 는 일이었다. 그 결과 1876년, 일본의 첫 근대적 미술교육기관으로 공부미술학교가 문을 열게 되고, 미술교육의 근대적 개혁을 위해 서양으로부터 미술가를 불러와 서양의 미술을 섭취하고자 하는 신속 한 움직임을 보여준다. 이런 점에서 일본의 근대미술은 미술교육의 제도적 개혁에서 비롯되었다고 할 수 있다. 이 글은 메이지 정부가 추진한 미술의 근대화 프로젝트를 공부미술학교를 통해 살펴보고 그 서양미술의 이식과정에서 서양의 미술가들이 어떠한 역할을 발휘하였으며, 그들로부터 교육받은 일본의 근대미술가들이 일본 근대미술의 발전과정에 미친 영향은 무엇이었는지를 되짚어보는 데 그 목적이 있다. 그럼으로써 한국 근대미술 연구에 또 다른 지표를 마련하고자 하는 것이다.

明治前期の府県庁「会議」 : 行政における「公論」の展開

明治前期の府県庁「会議」 : 行政における「公論」の展開

LOGIC OF PERMANENCE IN SHRINE DISPOSAL IN TOKYO DURING THE EARLY MEIJI PERIOD

This paper discusses the logic that leads small shrines, which were enshrined in the cities through premodern times, to continue to exist or be abolished in the early Meiji period in which the system of the Shinto shrines was reformed drastically from the perspective of urban history. The actual situation of shrine disposal in Tokyo is inspected diachronically and comprehensively by analyzing the administrative documents of Tokyo Prefecture during this time.

Life history of Naito Masu: a female pioneer of women’s education in Yamanashi Prefecture in the early Meiji Period

Naito Masu (1823~1901) was the first woman who advocated publicly the necessity of education for women; she did so in early Meiji period (1870’s) in Yamanashi Prefecture. In the Edo period, it was said that women did not need to study for a long time; therefore her achievement of founding a women’s private school and publishing a textbook regarding moral education for women were epoch making activities in the women’s education in Japan. This paper presents Masu’s life history and the process of development, because she is considered a woman who was sensitive to the gap between the education for men and women in developing their own lives. Masu’s activities following the Meiji Restoration are well-known; however, it is unknown about how and where she had been educated prior to this time. There is a travel diary written by Masu, named as “Suruga-kiko” and owned by Yamanashi Prefectural Museum. It is the appropriate source to know the first half of Masu’s life because it is thought to be written before the Meiji Restoration. This paper looks to draw a clear picture of the unknown part of Masu’s life, including her friends and acquaintances before Meiji Restoration, by citing it. She had grown her circle of acquaintances in the area along Fujigawa Highway and Fuji River. This area is associated with Japanese classic literature, as well as with most pupils of Prof. Hirata, lived in Kai no kuni. The author made investigations in the area and interviewed some people who live there now about Masu and the region’s educational history. As the result of this original research, this paper presents that Masu must developed her culture and education there.

China and Japan’s Northern Frontier: Chinese Merchants in Nineteenth-Century Hokkaido

This article examines the role of Chinese migrants in the development of Hokkaido in the last years of the Tokugawa period and the early Meiji period. The southern part of Hokkaido was the northern frontier of the Japanese realm until the mid-nineteenth century when one of its principal ports, Hakodate, was opened to international trade, and the island as a whole was opened to unrestricted Japanese colonial settlement. Hokkaido’s population ballooned from an estimated 58,000 in 1869 to 1.7 million by 1912 as settlers flooded in. Yet, despite this remarkable population transfer, Hokkaido’s settler colonial history is little known to scholars outside of Japan. Even less known is the role played by Chinese migrants and the China market in Hokkaido’s transformation. Hokkaido’s main economic activity, trade in marine products, developed rapidly (thus luring settlers) based on expanding demand for Hokkaido produce in southern Japan and the distant Yangtze delta. As such, Hakodate developed a thriving Chinese merchant community at least a decade before the Qing established formal trade relations with Japan in 1871–73. This article argues that Chinese migrant merchants were able to dominate Hokkaido’s foreign trade in this period due to a combination of their mercantile talent, market power, and association with (not subordination to) Western firms, which gave them extraterritorial rights. The demand for Hokkaido marine products in China was an important impetus to the expansion of Japanese capital and economic activity into Hokkaido’s frontier areas and hence the merchants involved in this trade played an indirect role in Japanese colonization. This article also briefly touches upon histories of Chinese sailors, agricultural labourers, translators, and technicians who worked in an around Hokkaido in the Meiji period.