Early Meiji Era Research Articles

Kritik Sosial Natsume Soseki dalam Novel Bocchan

This research aims to reveal Natsume Soseki's attitudes and views in the form of social criticism regarding the phenomenon of social deviation in Japanese society due to the Meiji Restoration (1868-1912) in his novel, Bocchan. Social problems often arise in modern societies, including what happened in Japan during modernization from 1868-1912, called the Meiji Restoration. These social problems include social and cultural dislocation due to the penetration of dominant Western culture and the marginal position of traditional elements, especially in the second decade of the early Meiji era, when Japan aggressively adopted Western culture on a large scale. This social phenomenon can be seen from the decline in Japanese society's appreciation for traditional social and cultural values while simultaneously placing Western culture in a superior position. The theory used in this research is Alan Swingewood's Literary Sociology theory. Through this theory, we will analyze the influence of Natsume Soseki's social background as the author of the novel Bocchan, as well as his ideological tendencies in responding to the symptoms of social deviation in Japanese society (1868-1912), which became the background for the creation of the novel Bocchan. After that, it will be analyzed to what extent the novel Bocchan can reflect social phenomena. The analysis was done by connecting the social aspects of the novel with the historical, social reality that was the background for its creation, namely Japanese society during the Meiji Era (1868-1912). Next, the author will see what social criticism is depicted in the novel. The results of the research show that the novel Bocchan describes Natsume Soseki's social criticism of the phenomenon of socio-cultural dislocation in Japanese society due to Westernization during the Meiji era, as well as the problems of a group of people who persist with old habits in the condition of the Japanese nation which is changing towards a developed and modern country.

The Flowing Chō : Cart Transportation and the Redefinition of Japan's Early Modern Urban Space

Abstract: This article proposes a reinterpretation of the meaning and function of the basic sociospatial unit of the early modern Japanese city, the chō . It argues that chō is best understood not as a fixed unit of space but as a conception that could expand, change, and even move. Takanawa-chō, a peripheral area south of Edo, was transformed into the gateway to the city by its association with the transportation industry. The dynamic movement of this particular "flowing chō " not only reflected but also drove the socioeconomic transformation of the city throughout the Tokugawa period and into the early Meiji era.

Diachronic Changes in Kyorinsuji"s Spellings Published in the Early Meiji Era: Focusing on the Replacement of "hɐ" with "heo-"

Diachronic Changes in Kyorinsuji"s Spellings Published in the Early Meiji Era: Focusing on the Replacement of "hɐ" with "heo-"

A Political Consideration on the Japan-Italy TreatyRevision Relations During the Inoue Kaoru Foreign Affairs Era (1879-1887) Centering on Japanese and Italian Primary Sources

In the early Meiji Era, the revision of the so-called “Unequal Treaties” was an issue of vital importance to the Japanese government. In particular, since the early 1880s Foreign Minister Inoue Kaoru (1836-1915), unlike his predecessor Terashima Munenori (1832-1893), who had given priority to the acquisition of tariff autonomy, sought to include in the negotiations with foreign powers also the abolition of extraterritoriality. In this context, the Kingdom of Italy found itself playing a significant role in Inoue’s foreign policy in the 1870s after the Italian diplomats in Tokyo had shown a strong interest in treaty revision aiming to obtain the right for the Italian traders to circulate freely in Japan’s inland areas in exchange for the renunciation of their extraterritorial rights. Since the Japan-Italy Treaty Revision Relations during the management of the Japanese Foreign Ministry by Inoue (1879-1887) have not received sufficient consideration by either Italian or Japanese historiographies, this research aims to examine it in detail, focusing the analysis on the strategic importance that the Kingdom of Italy had for the Japan government in the 1880s. Some still unclarified issues will be illuminated mainly by making use of Japanese primary sources and integrating them with the Italian ones.

Taste of Civilization: The Acceptance of Beef Appeared in Aguranabe in the Early Meiji Era

This study is to examine through Kanagaki Robun’s Aguranabe how beef, which was considered a symbol of civilization, was accepted and what changes were made in society as a result in the early Meiji period. At the time of the publication of Aguranabe, Japanese society was implementing Westernization policies with the aim of “civilization enlightenment” and “national prosperity and defense” along with rapid changes in the political system. The primary elements discussed in Aguranabe are as follows. First, Aguranabe details the process of resolving the “Kegare,” which was considered to be a hindrance to the acceptance of beef. In the beginning of the Japanese Westernization campaigns, the government and educated individuals introduced beef in terms of a “new civilization,” which can be said to have been somewhat successful. The characters in Aguranabe testify that beef is a symbol of civilization as well as a healthy food product to consume. The second element in Aguranabe describes the irony in how the government and the highly educated at the time insisted on accepting a Western diet for those in power, however, the general public was also participating in this movement through consuming a beef “hot pot.” This point seems to have been overlooked thus far. It is also noteworthy that the beef hot pot that the general populace consumed was in a form that was more acceptable to them, rather than adopting the unfamiliar foreign cooking method and utensils. The third element that Aguranabe delineates is the perception of the “individual” that appeared in the space of a beef hot pot restaurant. The consumer experienced a sense of liberation by eating beef, overcoming status differences and becoming on par with those present. In particular, the Japanese populace predicted the birth of the individual that the Meiji society was constructing by their insistence of utilizing Western technology and expanding knowledge through newspapers.

A Study on Mast Installation Procedure of Japanese Wooden Vessel of Edo Era, Bezaisen

Bezaisen, a Japanese typical wooden vessel of Edo era, is characterized by its single large sail supported by one set of huge mast. On the installation procedure of the mast, some references are available such as the record prepared by Armand Paris who was a lieutenant of French navy visiting Japan in early Meiji era. But those did not cover the procedure in detail to get overall picture. In this paper, the procedure is studied based on some calculations considering shapes, sizes, weights and center of gravities of the sail and mast on the reconstructed Bezaisen “Naniwa-maru" as well as its construction records.

A Road to Commercial Education as a Social Institution in the Early Meiji Era:

A Road to Commercial Education as a Social Institution in the Early Meiji Era:

Restoration of the Heights of the Riverbed and Banks of Kusatsu River in Southeastern Shiga Prefecture: 100 Years of Changes Based on Village Maps in the Early Meiji Era

Restoration of the Heights of the Riverbed and Banks of Kusatsu River in Southeastern Shiga Prefecture: 100 Years of Changes Based on Village Maps in the Early Meiji Era

Re-examination of the Historical Significance of Shim Su-gwan Family : Focusing on the Satsuma Phenomenon in the Meiji Export Ceramics Industry

The Shim Su-gwan (Chin Jukan in Japanese) family in Kagoshima, Japan, which is Satsuma ware producer, has attracted attention from the media and scholars because it is the only abducted pottery maker family during the 16th century Japanese invasion of Korea which has kept their Korean last name and passed it on from generation to generation. However, most of the discussions focused on the national identity and identification of the first-generation ancestor. As a result, no full consideration was given to the family s pottery business and works. In this paper, I will re-examine the historical significance of the Shim Su-gwan family in the context of the industry of Japanese export ceramics in the early Meiji era. It was during the 12th generation (1835-1906) that the fame of the family was firmly established. Satsuma ware, which the Satsuma domain exhibited at the Paris International Exposition of 1867 independently from the Edo Shogunate, gained popularity in Europe and established itself as a key export item of Japonism. Interestingly, as Satsuma ware became widely popular in Western countries, the so-called Satsuma phenomenon occurred, in which Satsuma-style pottery was made under the name &Satsuma& throughout Japan, in Kyoto and Kanazawa, the production centers of traditional Japanese ceramics, as well as in cities adjacent to export ports such as Nagasaki, Kobe, Yokohama, and Tokyo, and then exported. In this paper, I focus on this Satsuma phenomenon and analyze the role of the 12th Shim Su-gwan at the center of the phenomenon. In particular, I investigate his activities as a manager and leader of Satsuma producers, which have up until now been overlooked. Furthermore, I point out the double hurdle for the Shim Su-gwan family of being from Kagoshima, Japan s southernmost region, and being a descendant of foreigners. Even today, the stigma of being the descendants of Korean potters and the role as the guardian of Koreanness exert an impact on the family. Moreover, people project the image of a modern artist onto Shim Su-gwan while overlooking the change in the position of ceramic production in the industry field. To understand the historical significance of the Shim Su-gwan family, we need to consider the Korean-Japanese modern history and the transformation of the concept of art since the modern period.

Selection Process of Preferred Places for Change of Air for Beriberi Treatment by the Japanese Army during the Early Meiji Era

Selection Process of Preferred Places for Change of Air for Beriberi Treatment by the Japanese Army during the Early Meiji Era

STUDY ON THE IMPORTING COUNTRIES AND UNLOADING PORTS OF IRON NAILS IN JAPAN BEFORE THE WAR CONSIDERING “ANNUAL RETURN OF THE FOREIGN TRADE OF THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN.” “GAIKOU BOEKI GAIRAN” AS THE MAIN MATERIALS

The author has examined the fact that Japanese nails and Western nails were used together in the latter half of the Meiji era, and the price transition of Western nails during the Meiji era. For the import and price of Western nails at the end of the early modern period, the import and price of Western nails in 1864 can be confirmed using the European newspaper published in Japan. The earliest imports into the country during this period were "Nail-rod", the material for Japanese nails called nail paddles. Then, from the mid-10's to the mid-20's of the Meiji era, "Yotetsu Wakugi" were manufactured by Nail-rod, and in the early 10's of the Meiji era, this production expanded and the price was reduced. In late 10's of the Meiji era, it was shown that the import of Western nails increased sharply, and the combination period in which both Japanese nails and Western nails were used was reached. In addition, Western nails called “maru kugi” have been confirmed to be imported from the early Meiji era at the latest, and the price fluctuations of Wire Nail imported throughout the Meiji era have already been clarified, but the country of importing Western nails to Japan, the transition of the port of unloading, and various problems related to these are not clear. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to clarify the current state of nail imports in Europe and the United States after middle of the Meiji era by using "Dai-nihon gaikoku boeki nempyo" and "Gaikoku boeki gairan", which indicate the actual state of trade in Japan after this era.

Motoda Nagazane’s standards of Confucianism – between Confucianism and Emperor Centralism

This paper discusses the ideological significance of the activities of Motoda Nagazane who, in the latter half of his life, became an attendant of Emperor Meiji as a member of the Kumamoto school of practical science. Whilst there were trends towards modernisation and Westernisation, Motoda Nagazane led a conservative reaction attempting to restore Confucianist politics/policies. I scrutinise the theories of revolution and lineage considering the history of East Asian Confucianism and comparing Motoda’s assertions to the views expressed by Kumazawa Banzan. In doing so, I assert that Motoda’s consistent attitude shows that he does not approve of the theory of revolution and that he regards the theory of lineage as an established fact. Thus, he highlights the cultivation of virtues in rulers, adopting the stance typically taken by Confucian scholars in the history of Japanese ideology. In ‘Lessons of the Emperor’s Way’, Motoda attempts to support the meaning of ‘The Three Sacred Treasures’ through Confucian texts. My evaluation of this text results in the view that in this discourse, Motoda transcends the significance of harmonising the deep and difficult ‘Lessons of the Emperor’s Way’ with Confucianism, which is easy to impart. I deduce that Confucianism was positioned above all else as the absolute/comprehensive standard in Motoda’s thought and that his endorsement of the Emperor’s way was proscribed within the ideological boundaries of Confucianism. Through the above analysis, I conclude that Motoda was an anachronistic Confucian scholar who truly endeavored to realise the kingship politics of Yao and Shun in the early Meiji era. While it is acknowledged that he was lagging behind his contemporaries, it is shown that this seemingly backward stance emanated from his serious Confucian scholarship. Further, his assertions differ from the plain-spoken Confucianist Emperor centralism that emerged in later years.

Reconsidering Englishization: the Japanese government’s Top Global University Project

ABSTRACT This article begins with a brief historical overview of Japan’s education reforms, focusing particularly on language policy in higher education. In the Meiji era (1870s), lively discussions took place regarding making English the national language of Japan and providing education through English-medium instruction (EMI). Ultimately, Japan avoided both making English the national language and Englishization of higher education. However, since the Japanese government launched the Top Global University Project in 2014, which aims to promote the globalization of public and private universities and recruit foreign students from across the globe, Englishization has been accelerating. Upper-tier universities designated as Top Global Universities are particularly enthusiastic about increasing the scope of EMI across disciplines. To this end, more and more foreign instructors have been hired, and these seem to be replacing Japanese faculty in those universities. This educational setting is reminiscent of that prevailing during the early Meiji era. To reconsider the current situation in Japan’s higher education, the article discusses the Nordic language policy that was set forth to address the threat of the dominance of English. It suggests the limited use of English in Japan’s higher education and ends with a review of the literature on the fetishism of English.

Motoda Nagazane's standards of Confucianism - between Confucianism and Emperor Centralism

This paper discusses the ideological significance of the activities of Motoda Nagazane who, in the latter half of his life, became an attendant of Emperor Meiji as a member of the Kumamoto school of practical science. Whilst there were trends towards modernisation and Westernisation, Motoda Nagazane led a conservative reaction attempting to restore Confucianist politics/policies. I scrutinise the theories of revolution and lineage considering the history of East Asian Confucianism and comparing Motoda's assertions to the views expressed by Kumazawa Banzan. In doing so, I assert that Motoda's consistent attitude shows that he does not approve of the theory of revolution and that he regards the theory of lineage as an established fact. Thus, he highlights the cultivation of virtues in rulers, adopting the stance typically taken by Confucian scholars in the history of Japanese ideology. In 'Lessons of the Emperor's Way', Motoda attempts to support the meaning of 'The Three Sacred Treasures' through Confucian texts. My evaluation of this text results in the view that in this discourse, Motoda transcends the significance of harmonising the deep and difficult 'Lessons of the Emperor's Way' with Confucianism, which is easy to impart. I deduce that Confucianism was positioned above all else as the absolute/comprehensive standard in Motoda's thought and that his endorsement of the Emperor's way was proscribed within the ideological boundaries of Confucianism. Through the above analysis, I conclude that Motoda was an anachronistic Confucian scholar who truly endeavored to realise the kingship politics of Yao and Shun in the early Meiji era. While it is acknowledged that he was lagging behind his contemporaries, it is shown that this seemingly backward stance emanated from his serious Confucian scholarship. Further, his assertions differ from the plain-spoken Confucianist Emperor centralism that emerged in later years.

明治初期日本に導入されたスミソニアン気象観測法 (特集 近現代の気象学における観測とシミュレーション)

明治初期日本に導入されたスミソニアン気象観測法 (特集 近現代の気象学における観測とシミュレーション)

Pharmaceutical Education in Japan--Past, Present--, and Human Social Pharmacy Education in the Near Future.

In this paper, the foundation of the 74 Japanese pharmacy schools was reviewed. From the early Meiji era until the beginning World War II, 21 schools including Tokyo University were established. After the war, the new four-year university system was introduced from America, and the above 21 schools became universities and 25 universities were newly founded. In 2006, clinical pharmacy was introduced from America, and the six-year undergraduate system began. This system was divided into 2 groups, 1) 6 year system of clinical pharmacy plus 4 years doctor course and 2) 4 years system of pharmaceutical sciences and a master degree lasting 2 years plus a 3 year doctor course. These two systems started in 2006. The students of clinical pharmacy course must take the 22 weeks of clerkships in a community pharmacy and hospital pharmacy. The graduates (8,446) in 2015 March took the National License Examination for pharmacist, and the pass rate was 72.65%. The entrance into pharmacy school is not easy; however, the passing of the National License Examination is more difficult. The aim of pharmacy education should be to foster pharmacists with a deeper understanding of society and with richer humanity for the patient. To achieve this, what needs to be included in the curriculum are the subjects of the human social pharmacy, such as philosophy of pharmacy, ethics, religions, history of pharmacy, pharmaceutical affairs law, economics, management, and social pharmacy. The inclusion of such subjects needs to be implemented in the near future. Of course, the study of pharmaceutical sciences is a life-long endeavor.

明治初期教科書『本朝文範』における「普通文」への歩み

明治初期教科書『本朝文範』における「普通文」への歩み

Dr. David Murray: Superintendent of Education in the Empire of Japan, 1873–1879 by Benjamin Duke

Reviewed by: Dr. David Murray: Superintendent of Education in the Empire of Japan, 1873–1879 by Benjamin Duke Ian Ruxton (bio) Dr. David Murray: Superintendent of Education in the Empire of Japan, 1873–1879. By Benjamin Duke. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick NJ, 2019. vi, 385 pages. $69.95, cloth; $69.95, E-book. This book is the first biography in English of David Murray, a professor of mathematics at Rutgers College, who was appointed by the Japanese government as Superintendent of Education in the Empire of Japan in 1873. The founding of the Gakusei in 1872—the first public school system launched in Japan—marks the beginning of modern education in Japan, accommodating all children of elementary school age. The book's author, Benjamin Duke, is a professor emeritus of International Christian University and has authored several books, including The History of Modern Japanese Education (Rutgers University Press, 2009). Dr. David Murray introduces Murray's work to assist about 100 samurai students with their studies at Rutgers and his role in early Japan-U.S. relations—which is claimed to be "unprecedented." It is further claimed on the back cover that Rutgers "made a greater contribution to the development of modern education in the early Meiji era than any other non-Japanese college or university in the world." This is, of course, a bold claim, and no potential rivals in the United States or Europe for this honor are mentioned or discussed. In fact, the scope and extent of the book go far beyond a mere biography of Murray. We are given a very full account of some of the early encounters of Japanese students with the United States, both from Nagasaki (the direct route) and Satsuma via London (the indirect route). We learn a great deal about the interesting character Guido Verbeck (1830–98), the engineer turned pastor of the Dutch Reform Church, who sent students to Rutgers from Nagasaki by writing letters of recommendation, and who through a memorandum had significant input into clarification of the purposes of the Iwakura Mission to the United States and Europe, 1871–73, though this is not mentioned. We also are told much about William Elliot Griffis (1843–1928) and his lonely posting as a physical science teacher to Fukui (where there is now a museum bearing his name) and his escape back to Edo/Tokyo. Griffis, himself a Rutgers alumnus, was also recommended by Verbeck to Matsudaira Shungaku. Several eminent Japanese are introduced and appear repeatedly in the book, some already known to this reader, others not. It is clear that Murray and his wife had close and probably unrivaled social relations with most of the key members of the Meiji administration and their families. The [End Page 479] most well known are the court noble Iwakura Tomomi, Kido Takayoshi (Kōin), Itō Hirobumi, and Fukuzawa Yukichi. Of course Murray knew Mori Arinori (1847–89), the first minister to the United States (1871–73) and the first minister of education after Murray left Japan. Early in the book, Baron Kikuchi Dairoku (1855–1917) makes an appearance. He was the first Japanese student at the University of Cambridge and later became president of the imperial universities of Tokyo and Kyoto, and minister of education (1901–3).1As president of the Imperial Academy (Teikoku Gakushiin), he was commissioned by that body in December 1909 to visit Murray's grave and "pay proper respects to him" during a visit to the United States. This Kikuchi did in February 1910 when he gave a lecture on foreign influences in Japanese education (pp. 4–5) and was awarded an honorary LL.D. of Rutgers.2 A lesser-known man who was heavily involved in the selection of Murray as educational advisor during the Iwakura Mission's visit to the United States in 1872 was Tanaka Fujimaro (1845–1909). Originally a middle-ranking samurai from Owari Province (now Aichi Prefecture), he was made vice minister for education in 1874 and continued in that role—effectively as Murray's boss—until 1880. A remarkable fact is that Murray himself had apparently no useful or useable Japanese-language skills, which surely meant that he would have relied...

Circulation of and Policy for Copper Coins in the Early Meiji Era

Circulation of and Policy for Copper Coins in the Early Meiji Era

The transformation of urban fiscal structure during the early Meiji era

The transformation of urban fiscal structure during the early Meiji era