Early Medieval Sculpture Research Articles

Ancient and early medieval sculpture examples of Caucasian Albania

Ancient and early medieval sculpture examples of Caucasian Albania

Odrazi sjevernojadranskih klesarskih radionica u ranosrednjovjekovnom Sisku

The paper contributes to the interpretation of five fragments of early medieval sculpture and two capitals from the 5th century found around Sisak. Through the historical context and the analysis of the formal elements of early medieval sculpture, the authors discuss influences that came to the Pannonia Inferior from the cultural centres in the northern Adriatic, thus reflecting the specific circumstances in which Sisak is mentioned again after the late antique period in written sources of the early 9th century.

Late Antique and Early Medieval Sculpture in the Iberian Peninsula, a necessary revision

La sculpture de l’Antiquité tardive et du haut Moyen Âge en péninsule Ibérique ne possède pas un corpus complet, mais un grand nombre d’études dispersées qui permettent d’établir un état de la question. Nous disposons de corpora pour des régions, villes ou collections de musées, comme Badajoz, Cordoue, Tarragone ou Tolède, ainsi que des répertoires à caractère thématique, comme la sculpture figurée, les autels liturgiques ou la sculpture funéraire. Cela dit, il manque des études spécifiques sur les spolia de prestige concernant la sculpture et l’épigraphie en les distinguant du matériel à caractère exclusivement constructif, ainsi que de bonnes analyses sur le mobilier liturgique, les ateliers locaux, les importations et une bonne séquence chronologique des productions. L’objectif de cette présentation est d’offrir un état de la connaissance sur ce matériel, sur l’iconographie et la production, en vue de cerner des mécanismes de travail futur, tout spécialement des analyses archéométriques.

La produzione scultorea a Napoli tra IX e XI secolo. Riflessioni storiografiche e materiali di studio

In this article the first section is focused on the main phases of the historiographical debate of the XIX and XX Century about the early medieval sculpture in Naples, in order to understand what methods have been adopted by monographs and essays. Therefore I’ll consider again some casestudies, generally dated between IX and X Century. Among the works that twentieth-century historiography has included in this chronology, there are some cases already known, but infrequently investigated in relation to their contexts and which could require a new study in order to provide new reconstructions: two from the church of S. Maria a Piazza, and then two fragments of a relief, reused as a coat of arms in XVI Century in S. Maria in Mater Domini. The analysis of these artifacts will try to define the formal and functional peculiarities, and give, finally, some hypothesis on their origin and iconography.

Elements for a Chronology of Early Medieval Sculpture in Campania: The Liturgical Installations of the Bishops of Nola, Lupenus and Leo III in the Sanctuary of Cimitile

The presence of marbles with inscriptions of Lupenus and Leo III, bishops of Nola respectively in the second half of the 9th century and between the end of the 9th and early 10th centuries, in the sanctuary of St Felix at Cimitile (Southern Italy) provide a useful chronological basis for dating the sculptural production of the diocese and more generally of Campania. Between the first half of 9th century and the beginning of 11th century, there is no doubt that the churches of the diocese of Nola are among the major centres where Middle Byzantine sculpture attained high-quality marble production. Although the presence of itinerant sculptors cannot be entirely excluded, it appears that a local workshop operated in Cimitile, one that also served the nearby centres of Pernosano and Palma Campania. Indeed, this study confirms the local production of liturgical furnishings, obtained from the reworking of ancient, reused marble.

A New Chronological Proposal for the Early Medieval Liturgical Installations of the Church of San Lorenzo in Verona

This article analyzes for the first time the largest corpus of Early Medieval sculptures in the city of Verona, located in the church of San Lorenzo. Until now, these sculptures had never been well studied and are currently placed in a courtyard outside the church, reason why they are completely ruined. Thanks to the invaluable historical photographs that were taken at the end of the 19th century and which are now in the Avery Library in New York, it was possible for me to reconstruct the pieces and their decorative motifs. Thanks to this operation, I was able to compare the more than 30 sculptural fragments with other pieces from the Verona area and propose new chronologies for the Early Medieval liturgical installation of San Lorenzo, which includes fragments of a ciborium, fragments of pillars and parts of plutei. In my opinion, these pieces are not homogeneous, but were made at different times between the end of the 8th century and the beginning of the 9th century.

Sculture datate dell’Alto Medioevo nella Langobardia Maior. Una sintesi e qualche riflessione

The difficulty of placing most artefacts in a precise chronological order is one of the problems in the study of early medieval sculpture. Having overcome the initial tendency to provide generic dates (e.g. “8th-9th century”), as studies have continued, a greater knowledge of the lexicon and syntax of sculpture has been achieved, allowing more precise dates to be advanced. Nevertheless, there is still a need to find elements among the thousands of sculptures, almost always de-contextualised and fragmentary, that can be anchored to indisputable chronological terms. Although it is very difficult to find sculptures dated ad annum, cases in which the chronological coordinates can be restricted to a few years or a decade are not rare. Here we examine some sculptures, mainly from the 7th and 8th centuries, that have secure chronological coordinates, as they are linked to monuments or well-known personalities. The aim is to test to what extent the possession of certain dating elements can endow the sculptures with a function, so to speak, of “fossil-guide” - e.g. the sculptures of the so-called “Liutprandian renaissance” - for the dating, albeit approximate, of entire groups, more or less large than other sculptures that instead lack objective chronological coordinates, and whose dating can only be proposed on the basis of formal or stylistic analysis.

The Liturgical Furnishings of the Basilica of Aquileia in the Time of Patriarch Poppo (1019-1042): A New Interpretation

The basilica of Aquileia was rebuilt by patriarch Poppo and consecrated on 13 July 1031, as recalled by the famous diploma now preserved in Udine, partly reproduced in the painted inscription on the main apse of the church. The plan and most of the architectural structures of this building, only partially altered by 14th-century restorations, survive today. On the other hand, none of its liturgical furnishings are preserved in situ, and the archaeological and written sources provide us only few clues on the articulation of its interior space. The re-examination of the early medieval sculpture of Aquileia and the application of an archaeological methodology allowed us to identify a homogeneous group of stone materials similar in material, size and decoration, referable to the liturgical furnishings of the basilica of Poppo, which we present here. The sculptures are first grouped according to decoration and function. Then some fragments are reassembled graphically. Finally, a reconstructive hypothesis is proposed on the basis of all available sources, such as documentary and iconographic sources and archaeological evidence.

Frammenti vecchi e nuovi: arredi liturgici altomedievali in Costa d’Amalfi

Some early medieval sculptures found in the territory of the Amalfi Coast, especially in the city of Amalfi itself and in nearby Atrani are here analyzed. I want to focus on elements of architectural and liturgical furnishings, unfortunately erratic and decontextualized, found during the restoration of the church of San Salvatore de Birecto in Atrani. These are some unpublished fragments of slabs filled with circular decoration and others on which the head and body of a peacock can be identified, probably datable to the mid-9th century. Another small nucleus of Amalfi pieces must also be added to this group of sculptural fragments. These sculputures are today lost, but there is fortunately a photographic documentation preserved in the archive of the Norwegian Institute in Rome. They are heterogeneous materials of different chronology, which show both decorative solutions widespread in central Italy between the end of the 8th and the 9th century, and stylistic features characteristic of the production of Cimitile and its territory at the beginning of 10th century.

Exploring ‘the Angels’ Graveyard’: Relics, Sculpture and Ecclesiastical Power at Clonmore

AT THE ECCLESIASTICAL SITE OF CLONMORE, Co Carlow (Ireland), components of at least one, and possibly two, composite stone shrines were recently identified in the graveyard. This new archaeological evidence, together with its already considerable assemblage of early-medieval sculpture, supports a number of textual sources claiming that Clonmore housed a significant collection of corporeal saints’ relics. What makes Clonmore unusual in this regard is that it was reputed to possess a corporeal relic from every saint in Ireland, leading to its moniker Relic na nAingel (‘the Angels’ Graveyard’). Yet surprisingly, this site has been largely overlooked in recent studies. Using a combination of historical sources and archaeological evidence, this paper demonstrates that Clonmore’s identity was inextricably linked to its cult of relics and that its expression differed markedly from most other relic cults across Ireland and, to an extent, elsewhere in Western Europe – indicating that the cult of relics in Ireland was perhaps more diverse in its character and material manifestations than has been previously assumed.

Survey and excavation at an Iron Age enclosure complex on Turin Hill and environs

This paper presents the results of a programme of survey and evaluative excavation at a complex of five enclosures on Turin Hill in Angus, Scotland. This includes one large bivallate hillfort, an oblong fort and three smaller duns. The aim of the investigation was to re-map the surviving archaeological features and clarify the chronology of the sites. Geophysical survey was also undertaken and clarified various aspects of the enclosures on the hill, revealing a dense concentration of features within the interior of the large bivallate hillfort. Keyhole excavation was undertaken with basic chronological information being obtained for four out of five of the enclosures and dating samples from one other dun on the same ridge at Rob’s Reed. All the samples produced dates falling in the Iron Age and importantly, despite their location overlooking the rich assemblage of early medieval sculpture at Aberlemno, there was no definitive indication of early medieval activity or settlement at Turin Hill or its immediate environs. Evaluation of the rampart of the large bivallate hillfort produced an Early Iron Age date, and as such, may represent one of the few dated forts from this time period presently known in Scotland.
 Canmore ID 34899
 Canmore ID 33776
 Canmore ID 34959

Sculture altomedievali lungo il basso corso dell’Adige (secoli VI-X)

The recent update of the catalogue of the early medieval churches in the Padua province allowed us to record more buildings built before the 10th century, across the course of the Adige river between the towns of Montagnana (Padua) and Brondolo (Chioggia, Venice) (see Brogiolo in this volume). This paper deals with 17 fragments of liturgical furniture, some previously unpublished; for some churches these pieces offer the only surviving proof of their early medieval foundation. This work is a preliminary study of the Corpus of Early Medieval Sculpture of the dioceses of Padua and Chioggia, under investigation by the author.

La posible iglesia rural altomedieval de La Solana I (Móstoles, Madrid). El carácter central de su emplazamiento y sus vínculos con el poblamiento aldeano

El hallazgo de diversos elementos de escultura decorativa altomedieval cerca del arroyo de El Soto (Móstoles, Madrid) da pie a plantear la existencia de una construcción monumental en el paraje de La Solana. La interpretación del edificio como una iglesia rural parece la hipótesis más parsimoniosa. El estilo de las piezas se corresponde con el de un conjunto de sitios de la provincia de Toledo, al Sur del Tajo, fechable entre finales del siglo VII y el siglo VIII d.C. A escasamente un kilómetro al Este de ese edificio prosperó desde al menos el siglo XIII la aldea de Arroyo de Viñas, aunque parece probable que ya estuviera despoblada a finales del siglo XIV. Su ermita de San Marcos constituyó un polo de atracción muy estable para un grupo de aldeas vecinas hasta inicios del siglo XIX.

Peer Comment: Capturing Biographical Trajectories of Early Medieval Sculpture, Eliseg in Context

Peer Comment: Capturing Biographical Trajectories of Early Medieval Sculpture, Eliseg in Context

Biodegradation of ivory (natural apatite): possible involvement of fungal activity in biodeterioration of theLewisChessmen

Fungal biodeterioration of ivory was investigated with in vitro inoculation of samples obtained from boar and walrus tusks with the fungi Aspergillus niger and Serpula himantioides, species of known geoactive abilities. A combination of light and scanning electron microscopy together with associated analytical techniques was used to characterize fungal interactions with the ivory, including changes in ivory composition, dissolution and tunnelling, and the formation of new biominerals. The research was aimed at providing further understanding of the potential roles of fungi in the colonization and deterioration of ivory in terrestrial environments, but also contributes to our knowledge regarding the possible origins of the surface damage observed on early medieval sculptures made largely from walrus tusks, referred to as 'the Lewis hoard of gaming pieces', that were presumably produced for playing chess. The experiments have shown that the possibility of damage to ivory being caused by fungi is realistic. Scanning electron microscopy revealed penetration of fungal hyphae within cracks in the walrus tusk that showed also widespread tunnelling by fungal hyphae as well as 'fungal footprints' where the surface was etched as a consequence of mycelial colonization. Similar phenomena were observed with boar tusk ivory, while production of metabolites could lead to complete dissolution of the sample. Colonization of ivory and/or exposure to fungal activity lead to extensive secondary biomineral formation, and this was identified as calcium oxalate, mainly as the monohydrate, whewellite.

Three‐dimensional documentation and virtual restoration of the Lichfield Angel

The Lichfield Angel is a remarkable survival of early medieval sculpture, discovered during the recent excavation of the Cathedral's nave. Dating from around 800AD, the limestone panel is carved with the figure of an archangel, which retains an unprecedented amount of original painted decoration. Given the panel's exceptional importance, a carefully sequenced programme of recording and analysis was commissioned to inform decisions about the Angel's conservation and display. Close‐range three‐dimensional laser scanning comprised an essential component of the project's integrated documentation strategy. This paper outlines the scanning process and the image mapping technique used to create high resolution three‐dimensional models of the Angel's three fragments. It explores the novel applications for which the scan data was used, including high‐resolution three‐dimensional digital ‘basemaps’ onto which conservators could record and interrogate information about the fragments' condition and technique. A final section describes the surface colour reconstruction techniques used to ‘virtually’ restore the Angel's painted decoration. Résumé «Documentation en trois dimensions et restauration virtuelle de l'Ange Lichfield» L'ange Lichfield est un vestige remarquable des débuts de la sculpture médiévale, découvert lors de la récente fouille archéologique de la nef de la cathédrale. Datant d'environ 800 ans après J.C., en calcaire taillé, le panneau représente la figure d'un archange et conserve une importante décoration peinte d'origine sans précédent. Compte tenu de l'importance exceptionnelle du panneau, un programme d'enregistrement et d'analyse soigneusement organisé fut prescrit afin d'aviser les décisions concernant la conservation et l'exposition de l'Ange. Le laser à balayage en trois dimensions de courte portée constitua un élément essentiel de la stratégie documentaire dans ce projet. Cet article expose brièvement le processus de numérisation et la technique de cartographie employée pour créer des modèles tridimensionnels de haute précision des trois fragments de l'Ange. Il explore les nouvelles applications qui utilisent les données numériques, notamment une base de cartes digitales en trois dimensions de haute précision sur laquelle les restaurateurs peuvent enregistrer et rechercher les informations concernant l'état des fragments et la technique. Une dernière partie décrit l'emploi des techniques de reconstitution des couleurs sur la surface pour restaurer virtuellement la décoration peinte de l'Ange. Zusammenfassung „Dreidimensionale Dokumentation und virtuelle Restaurierung des Lichfield Engels” Der Lichfield Engel ist ein bemerkenswertes Relikt frühmittelalterlicher Skulptur, das bei der kürzlichen Ausgrabung des Hauptschiffs der Kathedrale entdeckt wurde. Die Kalksteintafel wird um etwa 800 n. Chr. datiert, und zeigt die gemeißelte Figur eines Erzengels, der eine bisher beispiellos gut erhaltene Originalfassung aufweist. Aufgrund der außergewöhnlichen Bedeutsamkeit der Tafel wurde ein sorgsam durchdachtes Programm zu ihrer wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung und Dokumentation in Auftrag gegeben, die bei den Entscheidungen über zukünftige Restaurierungsmaßnahmen und Ausstellungsweise behilflich sein sollen. Dreidimensionales Laser‐Scanning in Nahaufnahmen stellte einen wesentlichen Teil der Dokumentationsstrategie des Projektes dar. Dieser Artikel beschreibt den Prozess des Scannens und das Image‐Mapping‐Verfahren, das dazu benutzt wurde, hochauflösende dreidimensionale Modelle der drei Fragmente des Engels zu erstellen.Vorgestellt werden die neuartigen Anwendungsverfahren, für die die Scan‐Daten benutzt wurden, so wurden zum Beispiel hochauflösende, dreidimensionale digitale Karten (“basemaps”) erstellt, auf die die Restauratoren Informationen zum Erhaltungszustand und den Herstellungsmethoden eintragen konnten. Der letzte Teil des Artikels beschreibt die Methode zur Rekonstruktion der Oberflächenfarbe, die zur virtuellen Restaurierung der farblichen Fassung des Engels angewandt wurde. Resumen “Documentación tri‐dimensional y restauración virtual del Ángel de Lichfield” El Ángel de Lichfield es un notable vestigio de escultura de principios medievales, descubierta en una excavación reciente de la nave de la Catedral. El panel de piedra caliza, que data entorno a 800 DC, esta esculpido con la figura de un arcángel y conserva una cantidad de ornamentación pintada sin precedentes. Debido a la importancia excepcional del panel, y para poder tomar decisiones informadas sobre la conservación y la exposición del Ángel, se encargo un cuidadoso programa en serie de registro y análisis. Un escaneo tri‐dimensional de cerca con rayo láser supuso un componente esencial de la estrategia de documentación del proyecto. Este artículo resume el proceso de escaneo y la técnica de planificación del esquema de imágenes utilizadas para crear modelos tridimensionales de alta resolución de los tres fragmentos del Ángel. Se explora la novedosa aplicación para la cual se utilizaron los datos del escaneo, incluyendo mapas base digitales, tridimensionales y de alta resolución sobre los cuales los conservadores pudieron anotar y cuestionar información sobre el estado y la técnica de los fragmentos. La sección final describe las técnicas de reconstrucción del color de la superficie que se utilizaron para restaurar ‘virtualmente’ la ornamentación pintada del Ángel.

A figure sculpture at Upton Bishop, Herefordshire: continuity and revival in early medieval sculpture

AbstractIn the nineteenth century, a red sandstone figural carving was located in the south-facing chancel wall of the church of St John the Baptist, Upton Bishop, near Ross-on-Wye in Herefordshire. In 2005, following the removal of the stone for recording and conservation, the author was invited to examine and report on the sculpture, and particularly to review the proposal that the sculpture, rather than being of Roman date as had traditionally been supposed, was more probably a Romanesque carving of the twelfth century. The characteristics of the Upton Bishop carving are here examined and the various attributions of dating are reviewed, as a consequence of which it is suggested that the sculpture is neither Roman nor Romanesque in date, but rather is of pre-Conquest origin, most probably of aroundad800. It is thus suggested that the Upton Bishop sculpture represents a significant addition to the corpus of Anglo-Saxon figural sculpture in Herefordshire and the western Midlands, that the characteristics of the sculpture suggest well-established traits forming part of a local style and that these were taken forward into the Romanesque period, thus contributing to the distinctive character of the Herefordshire School of sculpture.

A Corpus of Early Medieval Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculpture in Wales. Volume II: South-West Wales

A Corpus of Early Medieval Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculpture in Wales. Volume II: South-West Wales, by Nancy Edwards. ( Cardiff: U. of Wales P., 2007; pp. 568. £70). This splendid volume, one of three planned to cover the whole of Wales, is an important work of scholarship which gives historians, archaeologists, linguists and epigraphers access to one of the most important collections of early medieval sculpture in Europe. This Welsh material is of fundamental importance to our understanding of the development of the Insular Celtic languages, at a period from the fifth to seventh centuries when the Brittonic (Welsh) and Goidelic (Gaelic) branches were undergoing rapid fission. The stones also represent the major body of artefactual evidence for the early medieval period in Wales, given the continuing difficulty in discovering archaeological sites of the period. This volume is a truly interdisciplinary study, combining art historical, archaeological and linguistic approaches. Although based on the format of the Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture, the volume pays special attention to the language of the inscriptions (with a chapter by Patrick Sims-Williams), and their landscape context. A series of eleven introductory chapters detail the historical, archaeological and geological background, followed by a series on aspects of the inscribed stones and sculpture, the inscriptions, and finally a summarising chapter on the development of stone-carving in Wales. These chapters are all extremely useful, giving sound analyses of the material, in much greater depth than in the Anglo-Saxon Corpus. For this reviewer, highlights included: a discussion of the original locations of the early inscribed stones, most of which can be shown to be associated with churches, in contrast to north Wales, and thus often provide the earliest evidence for these sites; illustration that the roman-letter inscriptions are not derived from Roman lapidary capitals and later Continental uncial book-hand, but from the general late-Roman cursive tradition and a range of lesser scripts; the definitive decoupling of the famous Voteporix stone from Gildas’ tyrant Vorptipor; and the discussion of the location of the cross-carved stones which are shown to be associated with parish churches rather than important monasteries, and demonstrate the early medieval origins of the parish system in this area. However, the meat of the volume lies in the catalogue of 216 monuments. These are well presented, with excellent photographs of all the decorated faces, often taken using modern lighting techniques. There are outline drawings of all the inscriptions, along with a selection of the decorated sculpture. The entries on each stone are of the highest quality, with comprehensive critical discussion of any antiquarian accounts (often important in preserving lost information), the language and epigraphy of the inscriptions, and the decorative elements. The production of the volume cannot be faulted, though one might have expected some colour illustrations. The eight pages of comparative scale drawings of a large number of the stones, following the model of the Scottish Royal Commission's corpus of the West Highland sculpture, are particularly useful. The entries are organised by county and parish but, unless one is familiar with the location of every Welsh parish (these are not shown on any map), it is difficult to locate individual stones on the maps. It might have been better to have used the catalogue numbers on the location maps, and also on the page headers for ease of cross-referencing. Given the current debate on the best means of recording and presenting these complex three-dimensional monuments, the one surprising omission is any discussion of the recording methods employed. It is not clear whether the outline drawings of the inscriptions were prepared independently or under supervision, why only some of the other stones were drawn, or why the fully shaded drawings used by the Scottish Royal Commission were not employed. Cost was no doubt a major factor in these decisions, but some acknowledgment that there are alternatives, and that these can affect the interpretation of the monument, would have been welcome. The difficulties of carrying out this work cannot be overestimated. Most of the monuments are in remote rural locations, often in locked or disused churches, some requiring complicated negotiations to gain access, as well as co-ordination of access between the geologists, photographers and illustrators. Many months of fieldwork were required, and Dr Edwards is to be commended for her dedication to this project. The Board of Celtic Studies, the National Museum of Wales, and the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales are to be congratulated on supporting this venture. Overall, this volume is an outstanding achievement and an essential work of scholarship and reference for anyone with an interest in early medieval Britain.

Able Minds and Practiced Hands: Scotland's Early Medieval Sculpture in the 21st Century. Edited by Sally M. Foster and Morag Cross. Pp. xii, 434. Society for Medieval Archaeology Monograph 23. ISBN: 1 904350 74 7; 978 1 904350 74 3. ISSN: 0583 9106. Leeds: Maney Publishing. 2005. £44.00 (non members), £35.00 (members).

<i>Able Minds and Practiced Hands: Scotland's Early Medieval Sculpture in the 21^st Century</i>. Edited by Sally M. Foster and Morag Cross. Pp. xii, 434. Society for Medieval Archaeology Monograph 23. ISBN: 1 904350 74 7; 978 1 904350 74 3. ISSN: 0583 9106. Leeds: Maney Publishing. 2005. £44.00 (non members), £35.00 (members).

Appropriating the Past: Romanesque Spolia in Seventeenth-Century Ireland

Although a relatively young subject, the historiography of Irish architecture has had a remarkably significant impact on the manner in which particular styles have been interpreted and valued. Since the genesis of the topic in the mid-eighteenth century, specific styles of architecture have been inextricably connected with the political history of the country, and each has been associated with the political and religious affiliations of its patrons. From the mid-nineteenth century, the focus on identifying an Irish ‘national’ architecture became particularly strong, with Early Christian and Romanesque architecture firmly believed to imbue ‘the spirit of native genius’, while Gothic, viewed as the introduction of the Anglo-Norman invader, was seen as marking the end of ‘Irish’ art. Inevitably, with such a strong motivation behind them, early texts were keen to find structures that were untouched by the hand of the colonizer as exemplars of the ‘national architecture’. Scholars, including the pioneering George Petrie (1790–1866) in works such as his 1845 study of the round towers of Ireland, believed that through historical research he and others were the first to understand the ‘true value’ of these buildings and that any former interest in them had been purely in their destruction, rather than in their restoration or reconstruction. It was believed that such examples of early medieval architecture and sculpture as had survived had done so despite, rather than because of, the efforts of former ages, and, although often in ruins, the remains could be interpreted purely in terms of the date of their original, medieval, creation.Informed by such studies, from the mid-nineteenth century a movement grew to preserve and consolidate a number of threatened Romanesque buildings with the guiding philosophy of preserving the monuments as close to their original ‘pre-colonial’ form as possible. Consolidation of the ruins of the Nuns’ Church at Clonmacnoise (Co. Offaly) is traditionally amongst the earliest and most celebrated of these endeavours, undertaken by the Kilkenny and Southeast Ireland Archaeological Society in the 1860s, setting a precedent for both the type of monument and method of preservation that was to become the focus of activity from the 1870s, and thus for the first State initiatives in architectural conservation.