Early Life Conditions Research Articles

Early life stress and HPA axis function independently predict adult depressive symptoms in metropolitan Cebu, Philippines.

Alterations in adult hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity have increasingly been linked with early life stress and adult depression, but a limited number of studies have used longitudinal data to explore HPA axis dysregulation as an underlying mechanism driving the long-term depressive impacts of early stressors. Here we address potential long-term impacts of early life, family-based stress on depressive symptoms among young adults in a longitudinal birth cohort study begun in 1983 in the Philippines. We relate a composite measure of family-based stressors experienced between birth and adolescence to circadian dynamics in adult salivary cortisol and depressive risk measured at 21-22 years of age. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between early life stress levels and risk of adult depressive symptoms, as well as the role of adult diurnal cortisol activity in this relationship. Greater levels of early life familial stress predicted more severe depressive symptomatology at age 21-22 in a dose-response fashion (p < .0001) independent of adult diurnal cortisol patterns. Flatter diurnal cortisol slopes are directly associated with higher adult depressive symptoms, an effect mostly driven by evening cortisol levels (p = .004). When considering the cumulative effects of early life stress measures, however, exposure to more of these stressors during development is associated with even higher depressive symptoms. The long-term depressive effects of early life familial stress extend to this large sample of Cebuano young adults, and early life stress and HPA axis function may shape adult depressive symptoms through independent pathways in this sample. Our findings provide further evidence that HPA axis activity is shaped by early life conditions and is associated with depressive symptoms.

Behavior test for seven-week old puppies (Canis familiaris): Inter-rater reliability and factors associated with test performance.

Behavioral development in domestic dogs has been investigated for predicting suitability for service dog work or for matching with the "right" families as well as for identifying predispositions to behavioral problems. Findings from the scientific literature seem to confirm that conducting behavioral tests at 7 weeks of age is too early to reliably predict the temperament and personality of a dog. However, this period for domestic dogs is sensitive for early life learning and conditions during this time could have important consequences in adulthood. The aims of this study were to evaluate inter-rater reliability of a simple standardized test and to investigate which factors influence the behavioral reaction of puppies. 105 seven-week old puppies were exposed to five subtests: social attraction, following, retrieving, sudden appearance, noise. During each task, the behaviour of each pup was scored on a 3-5 point scale that reflected the suitability of the pup's reaction to the task. Scores were evaluated for a single subtest and for two aggregate indicators (i.e. response to a person: social attraction subtest and following subtest and response to object and noise: retrieving subtest, sudden appearance subtest and noise subtest). Three assessors independently scored the dogs' reactions for each task. Inter-rater reliability of the three assessors were analyzed with Fleiss' Kappa and Kendall's coefficient, which showed a high inter-rater reliability in 4 of 5 tasks. The ordered logistic regression was carried out to obtain a proportional odds model that was used to model the relationship between sex, litter size, stimulating environment, parity of mother, adequate maternal behavior and high scores. Litter size and maternal parity were associated with test performance in response to a person. The variance of effect of litter was high in response to object and noise. Taken together, our results suggest that using this scoring system there is sufficient inter-rater reliability in the test and litter size and mother experience influences task performances related to dog-human interaction.

Individual-based population genomics reveal different drivers of adaptation in sympatric fish

Connectivity and local adaptation are two contrasting evolutionary forces highly influencing population structure. To evaluate the impact of early-life traits and environmental conditions on genetic structuring and adaptation, we studied two sympatric fish species in the Western Mediterranean Sea: Symphodus tinca and S. ocellatus. We followed an individual-based approach and measured early-life history traits from otolith readings, gathered information on environmental variables and obtained genome-wide markers from genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS). The two species presented contrasting population structure across the same geographic gradient, with high and significant population differentiation in S. ocellatus, mostly determined by oceanographic fronts, and low differentiation and no front effect in S. tinca. Despite their different levels of genetic differentiation, we identified in both species candidate regions for local adaptation by combining outlier analysis with environmental and phenotypic association analyses. Most candidate loci were associated to temperature and productivity in S. ocellatus and to temperature and turbulence in S. tinca suggesting that different drivers may determine genomic diversity and differentiation in each species. Globally, our study highlights that individual-based approach combining genomic, environmental and phenotypic information is key to identify signals of selection and the processes mediating them.

The influence of monitoring activities on maternal weight gain among pregnant women.

Background: The relationship between nutritional status in early life and the risk of chronic diseases in the future development of the child is a critical factor that needs to be considered. The basic factors that can help in this case include thrifty phenotype hypothesis, developmental plasticity, fetal programming and weight gain regulation. This study aims to determine the average increase in weight gain before and after mentoring program.Design and methods: The sample was taken randomly from 191 pregnant women. From number of women mentored, 106 that met the inclusion criteria. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test then was used in the data analysis.Results: The results show that the average body weight of women increased 18.94%, while the BMI rose by 7.46%. Mentoring program led to an increase in maternal body weight, indicated with a P-value of 0.000.Conclusions: In conclusion, mentoring program influences bodyweight in pregnant women. Therefore, it is vital to maintain a high nutritional status during pregnancy.Significance for public healthMaternal weight gain during pregnancy is an important determinant of birth outcomes. Gestational weight gain is directly associated with birth weight for gestation length, a marker of fetal growth, which is directly associated with child health and non-communicable disease on the future. This paper describes the correlation between mentoring activity and weight gain during pregnancy.

Comparison of Otolith Microstructure of Herring Larvae and Sibling Adults Reared Under Identical Early Life Conditions

Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) is a euryhaline species, occupying fully marine habitats (35 psu) in the North Atlantic, as well as brackish waters (<20 psu) such as in the adjacent Baltic Sea. We co-reared Atlantic purebreds and Atlantic/Baltic F1 hybrids in two salinity regimes (16 and 35 psu) in a common garden experiment for 3 years until their first maturity. This setup enabled for the first time a direct comparison between adults and their larval siblings at respective salinity regimes in terms of larval growth indicated by otolith microstructure. We validated that otolith microstructure analysis of adult otoliths is reflecting the experienced otolith growth during the larval stage. No major selection in terms of otolith growth had taken place during the juvenile stage, except for one experimental group. Surviving adult Atlantic purebreds reared at 16 psu had higher otolith growth compared to their larval stages. The validation that otolith microstructure analyses of adult herring can reliably be extracted and used to examine larval growth even after several years adds strong support for further use of such analyses. Among the parental generation, Baltic herring had a faster initial otolith growth than Atlantic herring. The growth of their laboratory-reared F1 progeny was intermediate compared to their parents. In general, larval growth of both Atlantic purebreds and Atlantic/Baltic hybrids reared in 16 psu was significantly larger than for those herring reared at 35 psu. There was no significant difference in larval growth between Atlantic purebreds and Atlantic/Baltic hybrids reared at 35 psu, but hybrid larval growth was significantly higher compared to larval growth of Atlantic purebreds at 16 psu. This was not reflected at the adult stage where purebreds were ultimately larger than hybrids (Berg et al., 2018). This indicates the influence and importance of environmental and genetic factors throughout the life of Atlantic herring, along with genetic contributions to phenotypic variability.

Risk of eczema, wheezing and respiratory tract infections in the first year of life: A systematic review of vitamin D concentrations during pregnancy and at birth.

Allergic conditions and respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are common causes of morbidity and mortality in childhood. The relationship between vitamin D status in pregnancy (mothers), early life (infants) and health outcomes such as allergies and RTIs in infancy is unclear. To date, studies have shown conflicting results. This systematic review aims to gather and appraise existing evidence on the associations between serum vitamin D concentrations during pregnancy and at birth and the development of eczema, wheezing, and RTIs in infants. PubMed, MEDLINE, ProQuest, Scopus, CINAHL, Cochrane Library and Academic Search Premier databases were searched systematically using specified search terms and keywords. Articles on the associations between serum vitamin D concentrations during pregnancy and at birth and eczema, wheezing, and RTIs among infants (1-year-old and younger) published up to 31 March 2019 were identified, screened and retrieved. From the initial 2678 articles screened, ten met the inclusion criteria and were included in the final analysis. There were mixed and conflicting results with regards to the relationship between maternal and cord blood vitamin D concentrations and the three health outcomes-eczema, wheezing and RTIs-in infants. Current findings revealed no robust and consistent associations between vitamin D status in early life and the risk of developing eczema, wheezing and RTIs in infants. PROSPERO registration no. CRD42018093039.

Effects of Early and Current Environmental Enrichment on Behavior and Growth in Pigs.

Enriched environments are known to beneficially affect the behavior of pigs, as compared with barren pens. The influence of enrichment may, however, depend on pigs' early life housing experiences. The aim of this study was to investigate the long-term effects of early and later life environmental enrichment on behavior and growth in pigs with different coping styles. Pigs were housed in either barren pens or in larger pens enriched with rooting substrates from birth, and half of them experienced a housing switch, i.e., a loss or gain of enrichment, at 7 weeks of age, creating four treatment groups. Home pen behavior and body weight were recorded until 19 weeks of age. Pigs were classified as reactive or proactive based on a backtest at 2 weeks of age. Enrichment increased time spent exploring, chewing, and play and decreased oral manipulation of penmates and pen-directed exploring and chewing. Behavior of pigs that switched from barren to enriched pens or vice versa reflected not only their actual environment, but also their early life housing. As early and later life enrichment affected most behaviors in opposite directions, effects of enrichment, or lack thereof, after the switch were more pronounced in pigs that had experienced a different early life condition. For instance, pigs experiencing an upgrade from barren to enriched pens seemed to “catch-up” by showing more exploration and play. Conversely, pigs exposed to a downgrade displayed more oral manipulation of penmates than ones kept barren throughout, which particularly held for pigs with a reactive coping style. Effects of early life and current housing on several other behaviors depended on coping style too. Pigs housed in enriched conditions appeared better able to cope with weaning than barren housed pigs, as they gained more weight and had higher feed intake post-weaning. Barren housed pigs had a lower body weight than enriched pigs just before the switch, after which growth was mainly determined by actual housing, with enriched kept pigs having a higher feed intake and body weight. Thus, not only current housing conditions, but also a (mis)match with the early life environment may affect behavior and growth of pigs.

Early-Life Conditions and Cognitive Function in Middle-and Old-Aged Chinese Adults: A Longitudinal Study.

A range of previous studies have suggested that early-life conditions (ELCs) are associated with various health problems throughout life in Western societies. The aim of this study was to investigate whether, and how, early-life conditions predicted the level and trajectory of cognitive function in middle- and old-aged Chinese adults. Data were obtained from China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study which comprised 16,258 adults at baseline. Cognitive function was assessed using mental intactness and episodic memory and ELCs were measured by early parental death, childhood socioeconomic status (SES), food deprivation, and childhood health. Growth curve modeling was used to examine the trajectory of cognitive function (three waves in a 6-year period)with particular attention paid to the effects of ELCs on cognition. The results show that early maternal death is associated with the baseline cognitive level among middle- and old-aged Chinese adults (β range between −0.44 and −0.35, p < 0.05), but that this association is also largely attenuated by adulthood education. Higher childhood SES predicts an enhanced level of baseline cognition in both age groups (β range between 0.08 and 1.27, p < 0.001), but only protects against cognitive decline at baseline in middle-aged adults. Participants who were less healthy during childhood tended to have lower cognitive performance than those who had enjoyed good health (β range between −0.36 and −0.14, p < 0.05). The results of this study highlight the detrimental impact of deleterious ELCs on cognitive function throughout later life.

Dynamic changes in DNA methylation during postnatal development in zebra finches Taeniopygia guttata exposed to different temperatures

Epigenetic changes associated with early life conditions are known to play a significant role in shaping the adult phenotype. Studies of DNA methylation in wild animals are lacking, yet are important for understanding the fitness consequences of environmentally induced epigenetic change. In our study, we quantified variation in DNA methylation in wild, post‐hatch zebra finches Taeniopygia guttata developing at seasonally variable temperatures in the Australian desert. We also compared variation in DNA methylation among captive zebra finch siblings raised in temperature controlled ‘hot’ or ‘cool’ rooms. We detected an increase in genome‐wide levels of DNA methylation between day 3 and day 11 of post hatch development in wild zebra finches. In the wild, ambient temperatures were also found to affect genome‐wide levels of DNA methylation and plasticity in the methylation state of individual loci. Family effects had a significant influence on DNA methylation throughout our study, and while we did not detect an effect of temperature on DNA methylation levels in non‐related captive birds, our sibling pair analyses revealed that within families, elevated temperatures were associated with higher levels of DNA methylation. Our findings suggest a wide window in early development during which climatically induced variation in DNA methylation could occur. Further work is necessary to understand the potential for such variation to promote ecologically relevant variation in wild birds.

Early predictors of female lifetime reproductive success in a solitary hibernator: evidence for "silver spoon" effect.

Fitness consequences of early-life conditions remain unclear and poorly studied in mammals. Based on long-term observations of yellow ground squirrels (Spermophilus fulvus), we identified early determinants of female fitness by analyzing the effects of early-life individual and environmental characteristics (weaning weight, weight gain rate, date of natal emergence, natal litter size, location of the natal burrow, local density of juveniles, population density and precipitation in the post-weaning period) on lifetime reproductive success (LRS). We found high variation and right-skewed distribution in all five LRS components (survival to adulthood, adult lifespan, and lifetime numbers of weaned litters, weanlings, and yearling offspring). Numbers of litters, weanlings, and adult offspring were correlated with each other and increased with lifespan, confirming that longevity is a better predictor of LRS than fecundity. Survival to adulthood was the most sensitive fitness component to early conditions and was higher in females (a) with greater weaning weight, (b) born further from human settlement and (c) born at lower population density. Population density at birth was the best early predictor of all LRS components and negatively influenced adult lifespan and numbers of weanlings and yearling offspring. Early growth rate positively affected the probability of reproducing after the first hibernation and the number of offspring weaned. Such syndrome of high-quality (heavy and fast-growing) young born in a favourable environment ("a silver spoon effect") with downstream damping fitness consequences has been observed so far in only a few mammalian species.

Children with vaccination granulomas and aluminum contact allergy: Evaluation of predispositions, avoidance behavior, and quality of life.

Aluminum contact allergy is mostly seen in children with vaccination granulomas, following immunization with aluminum-adsorbed childhood vaccines. To characterize a cohort of children with vaccination granulomas and aluminum allergy concerning early life conditions, exacerbating factors, avoidance behavior, treatments, and potential impact on quality of life. A questionnaire study was conducted among 177 children aged 0 to 15 years with vaccination granulomas and aluminum allergy, and a reference group of 61 children aged 3 to 14 years with various types of dermatitis undergoing patch testing. All children in the granuloma group were reportedly affected by itch. Infection exacerbated the itch in 59%. Other worsening factors were eating tin-foiled/canned food (31%) and use of aluminum-containing sunscreen (46%). Many parents took precautions to avoid aluminum exposure. Children with granulomas were more likely to be nonadherent to the National Vaccination Program than the reference group (27% vs 2%, P < .001). Parents in the granuloma group reported a decreased life quality for both parents and children compared with the reference group. Itching vaccination granulomas and aluminum allergy have a considerable negative impact on affected children and their families, causing avoidance behavior, reduced adherence to vaccination programs, and a negative effect on the overall life quality.

Socioeconomic Life Course Models and Oral Health: A Longitudinal Analysis

We compared socioeconomic life course models to decompose the direct and mediated effects of socioeconomic status (SES) in different periods of life on late-life oral health. We used data from 2 longitudinal Swedish studies: the Level of Living Survey and the Swedish Panel Study of Living Conditions of the Oldest Old. Two birth cohorts (older, 1925 to 1934; younger, 1944 to 1953) were followed between 1968 and 2011 with 6 waves. SES was measured with 4 indicators of SES and modeled as a latent variable. Self-reported oral health was based on a tooth conditions question. Variables in the younger and older cohorts were grouped into 4 periods: childhood, young/mid-adulthood, mid /late adulthood, late adulthood/life. We used structural equation modeling to fit the following into lagged-effects life course models: 1) chain of risk, 2) sensitive period with late-life effect, 3) sensitive period with early- and late-life effects, 4) accumulation of risks with cross-sectional effects, and 5) accumulation of risks. Chain of risk was incorporated into all models and combined with accumulation, with cross-sectional effects yielding the best fit (older cohort: comparative fit index = 0.98, Tucker-Lewis index = 0.98, root mean square error of approximation = 0.04, weighted root mean square residual = 1.51). For the older cohort, the chain of SES from childhood → mid-adulthood → late adulthood → late life showed the following respective standardized coefficients: 053, 0.92, and 0.97. The total effect of childhood SES on late-life tooth loss (standardized coefficient: –0.23 for older cohort, –0.17 for younger cohort) was mediated by previous tooth loss and SES. Cross-sectional effects of SES on tooth loss were observed throughout the life course, but the strongest coefficients were at young/mid-adulthood (standardized coefficient: –0.41 for older cohort, –0.45 for younger cohort). SES affects oral health cumulatively over the life course and through a chain of risks. Actions to improve socioeconomic conditions in early life might have long-lasting effects on health if they help prevent people from becoming trapped in a chain of risks.

Colostrum supplementation with n-3 fatty acids and α-tocopherol alters plasma polyunsaturated fatty acid profile and decreases an indicator of oxidative stress in newborn calves

Our objective was to characterize the effects of supplementing newborn calves with n-3 fatty acids (FA) and α-tocopherol on blood lipid profiles and oxidant status in early life. Sixteen calves received 0 or 60 mL of 1:1 fish and flaxseed oil with 200 mg of α-tocopherol in 2.8 L of colostrum within 6 h after birth. Colostrum was >22% on the Brix scale. Blood was sampled on d 1, 2, 4, 7, 14, and 21 after birth for assessment of plasma polyunsaturated FA, α-tocopherol, total serum protein, and oxidant status index, an indirect indicator of oxidative stress that examines the balance between the concentration of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and antioxidant capacity in serum. Health was observed daily. Weight and hip height were recorded at birth, 3 wk, and 8 wk. Data were analyzed with a Mixed procedure of SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Treatment did not alter concentration of total protein in blood serum, prevalence of diarrhea or other signs of disease, or rate of growth. Feeding n-3 FA and α-tocopherol increased plasma concentrations of the n-3 FA, including α-linolenic, eicosapentaenoic, and docosahexaenoic acids, with a concomitant decrease in oxidant status index during the first week of life. Concentrations of α-tocopherol decreased with supplementation, but all calves maintained adequate concentrations. Oxidant status index of treated calves returned to the level of control calves by d 14. We conclude that a colostrum supplement of n-3 FA and α-tocopherol is safe to administer to newborn calves, reduces oxidant status in the first week of life, and may improve health and performance.

Early-life hypoxia alters adult physiology and reduces stress resistance and lifespan in Drosophila.

In many animals, short-term fluctuations in environmental conditions in early life often exert long-term effects on adult physiology. In Drosophila, one ecologically relevant environmental variable is hypoxia. Drosophila larvae live on rotting, fermenting food rich in microorganisms, an environment characterized by low ambient oxygen. They have therefore evolved to tolerate hypoxia. Although the acute effects of hypoxia in larvae have been well studied, whether early-life hypoxia affects adult physiology and fitness is less clear. Here, we show that Drosophila exposed to hypoxia during their larval period subsequently show reduced starvation stress resistance and shorter lifespan as adults, with these effects being stronger in males. We find that these effects are associated with reduced whole-body insulin signaling but elevated TOR kinase activity, a manipulation known to reduce lifespan. We also identify a sexually dimorphic effect of larval hypoxia on adult nutrient storage and mobilization. Thus, we find that males, but not females, show elevated levels of lipids and glycogen. Moreover, we see that both males and females exposed to hypoxia as larvae show defective lipid mobilization upon starvation stress as adults. These data demonstrate how early-life hypoxia can exert persistent, sexually dimorphic, long-term effects on Drosophila adult physiology and lifespan.

The Relationship between Early-Life Conditions in the Home Country and Adult Outcomes Among Child Immigrants in the United States

We examine the impact of health and economic conditions at birth on the adult outcomes of child immigrants using the Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study. Our sample consists of children from 39 countries who were brought to the United States before the age of 13. We estimate immigrant outcomes as a function of the infant mortality rate (IMR) and GDP per capita of their home country in the year of birth, controlling for birth-year, year-of-arrival and country-of-birth fixed effects, as well as demographic characteristics. IMR has a significant negative impact on English reading ability and GPA in middle school. IMR significantly decreases first job prestige, years of schooling, working hours, log earnings and income satisfaction. Some of these effects appear to be working through the lower middle school GPA. IMR does not influence self-rated health or labour market participation in adulthood, and there is no statistically significant relationship between GDP per capita and adult outcomes. Our estimates are of economic significance: the impact of being born in 1975 versus 1976 in Nicaragua in terms of the impact of IMR on earnings is equal to the gender effect on earnings, while the effect on income satisfaction of being born in Cuba in 1975 versus 1976 in terms of the impact of IMR is about equal to the father's high school completion effect. Our results cannot be explained by selection on observables: the pre-migration characteristics of children and parents are not associated significantly with the health and economic conditions at birth. Also, several tests show that our results cannot be explained by potential selection on unobservables. These results are robust to sample attrition and the inclusion of cohort trends and interaction effects between age-at-arrival and home country conditions.

Interplays between pre- and post-natal environments affect early-life mortality, body mass and telomere dynamics in the wild.

Early-life conditions are crucial determinants of phenotype and fitness. The effects of pre- and post-natal conditions on fitness prospects have been widely studied but their interactive effects have received less attention. In birds, asynchronous hatching creates challenging developmental conditions for the last-hatched chicks, but differential allocation in last-laid eggs might help to compensate this initial handicap. The relative importance and potential interaction between pre- and post-hatching developmental conditions for different fitness components remains mostly unknown. We manipulated hatching order in wild pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca), creating three groups: natural asynchrony (last-laid eggs hatching last), reversed asynchrony (last-laid eggs hatching first) and hatching synchrony (all eggs hatching at once). We examined the effects of these manipulations on early-life survival, growth and telomere length, a potential cellular biomarker of fitness prospects. Mortality was mostly affected by hatching order, with last-hatched chicks being more likely to die. Early-life telomere dynamics and growth were influenced by the interplays between laying and hatching order. Last-laid but first-hatched chicks were heavier but had shorter telomeres 5 days after hatching than their siblings, indicating rapid early growth with potential adverse consequences on telomere length. Synchronous chicks did not suffer any apparent cost of hatching synchronously. Impaired phenotypes only occurred when reversing the natural hatching order (i.e. developmental mismatch), suggesting that maternal investment in last-laid eggs might indeed counterbalance the initial handicap of last-hatched chicks. Our experimental study thus highlights that potential interplays between pre- and post-natal environments are likely to shape fitness prospects in the wild.

A compendium of ecological knowledge for restoration of freshwater fishes in Australia

Many freshwater fishes are imperilled globally, and there is a need for easily accessible, contemporary ecological knowledge to guide management. This compendium contains knowledge collated from over 600 publications and 27 expert workshops to support the restoration of 9 priority native freshwater fish species, representative of the range of life-history strategies and values in south-eastern Australia’s Murray–Darling Basin. To help prioritise future research investment and restoration actions, ecological knowledge and threats were assessed for each species and life stage. There is considerable new knowledge (80% of publications used were from the past 20 years), but this varied among species and life stages, with most known about adults, then egg, juvenile and larval stages (in that order). The biggest knowledge gaps concerned early life stage requirements, survival, recruitment, growth rates, condition and movements. Key threats include reduced longitudinal and lateral connectivity, altered flows, loss of refugia, reductions in both flowing (lotic) and slackwater riverine habitats, degradation of wetland habitats, alien species interactions and loss of aquatic vegetation. Examples and case studies illustrating the application of this knowledge to underpin effective restoration management are provided. This extensive ecological evidence base for multiple species is presented in a tabular format to assist a range of readers.

Egg Incubation Temperature Affects Development of Innate Immune Function in Nestling American Robins (Turdus migratorius).

The innate immune system provides important first-line defenses against invading pathogens and is considered especially important for developing organisms. However, we know little about how early-life conditions influence these defenses in wild animals. For oviparous species such as birds, embryonic development occurs in the egg, which can be subject to variation in thermal conditions. There is evidence from cavity-nesting species and species with precocial young that reduced incubation temperatures can result in reduced measures of innate immunity. Whether and how this thermal variation impacts innate immunity for open-cup-nesting species with altricial offspring has not been examined. In this study, we experimentally manipulated egg incubation temperature for American robins (Turdus migratorius) and compared the bacteria-killing ability (BKA) of the nestlings' blood plasma. We collected baseline and poststressor samples on day 7 and day 10 after hatch to gain additional insights into the ontogeny of this immune measure, as well as into whether any changes were linked to levels of the glucocorticoid hormone corticosterone (CORT). We found that nestlings incubated at the low treatment (36.1°C) had significantly reduced BKA compared with nestlings incubated at the high treatment (37.8°C) when controlling for the posthatch nest environment. We also documented a significant reduction in poststressor levels of BKA, as well as an increase in BKA from day 7 to day 10. We found a weak inverse association between CORT and BKA but no other indications that BKA was mediated via treatment-induced variation in CORT. Our results suggest that incubation temperature can affect development of innate immunity in open-cup-nesting passerines.

Regional Inequalities, Childhood Socioeconomic Conditions and Adult Life Outcomes — Evidence from Pakistan

The circumstances during early years of life wieldasignificant impact on adult life outcomes by influencing and altering the cognitive, social and personality development of individuals. While these, in turn, are determined largely by the parental socioeconomic status which, in great part, depends on prosperity of the regions within which they dwell. This study assessed the relationship among regional inequalities, its influence on early life conditions and the consequent transmission toadult life in the shape of socioeconomic outcomes. For this purpose, secondary data on Pakistans regional, economic and sociodemographic indicators was utilized. Results confirmed the significance of regional disparities over living conditions at the start of life and lifelongsocioeconomic outcomes. A just spread of the economic pie among the regions can improve socioeconomic and living conditions at individual level. This can have favorable implications in the shape of healthy and productive adults.

Morphological and physiological consequences of a dietary restriction during early life in bats

Abstract Early life adverse conditions can have major consequences on an individual’s life history traits. Oxidative stress has been hypothesized to be one main mechanism underlying the negative consequences of early life adverse conditions. To test this hypothesis, we restricted the food availability of Seba’s short-tailed bat (Carollia perspicillata) mothers of unweaned pups for 10 days, followed by ad libitum provisioning. We also had a control, unrestricted group. We explored the morphological consequences of dietary restriction during early life by measuring growth rate. We also measured four markers of blood oxidative balance during growth. We assessed the level of cortisol, and its inactive form cortisone, in the hair of the pups at the end of growth. Finally, we monitored survival during the first year. Food restriction triggered a slowdown in growth followed by catch-up growth when ad libitum feeding was restored which did not lead to full compensation in size or mass compared to control individuals. We found that higher growth rate was associated with elevated oxidative damage, suggesting an oxidative cost to growth. However, we found no clear evidence for physiological costs specific to the catch-up growth. Survival after a year was not impacted by the treatment, the oxidative balance or the level of glucocorticoids at the end of growth. In conclusion, our results show that individuals were able to efficiently mitigate the short-term consequences of adverse early life conditions. However, consequences might arise in the long-term, and could impact reproductive success or lifespan.